The Roots Of Roman Stamina: The Struggle With The Samnites

 

Painted Frieze Of Samnite warriors, 4th Cent. BC

Rome's rise to power and empire is a story that spans several centuries. She was imperialism par excellence, eventually expanding her dominion over at first the Mediterranean and then western and eastern Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East. While the well organized Roman armies were at times virtually invincible, they also faced some defeats. What is remarkable about the Roman military is how they would suffer a reversal then learn from it, adapt and adopt accordingly, and go on to achieve victory and establish a stability few empires have attained in history. When Rome was in danger of foreign invasion on Italian soil by the capable military commander Pyrhus, the king of Epirus, they suffered several defeats at the hands of this military strategist but were able to hold their own, inflicting so many losses on their adversary at the battle of Beneventum in 275 BC that the great king reputedly exclaimed "one more such victory and I am lost", giving rise to the expression 'Pyrrhic Victory'. When Hannibal of Carthage invaded the Italian peninsula by way of the Alps, bringing his army with him in a daring move that caught the Romans by surprise, he defeated them in several battles, most notably the battle of Cannae in 216 BC in which he devastated the Roman army opposing him. Livy claims that Roman losses were more than half their force, some 67,000 men. This battle held the reputation of being Rome's darkest hour. Hannibal used an encircling tactic still studied to this day in military schools around the world in which he trapped the legions who were crammed so close together they could not use their swords effectively and were indiscriminately slaughtered. Members of Rome's highest and most noble families died in the conflict, and it is said there was not a Roman family who did not mourn the loss of a son, father or brother. Hannibal drove fear into the hearts of the peoples of the Italian countryside. Though he defeated the legions on the battlefield, Hannibal had no siege engines and could not breach the walls of Rome, thus depriving the great general of his prize. Concerned about his narrow supply lines which the Romans constantly harassed he was forced to retreat back to North Africa where he would await Roman vengeance, which would arrive in the form of a general named Scipio, who studied Hannibal's tactics and turned these on the Carthaginian, decisively defeating the seemingly invincible one at the battle of Zama in 202 BC. For this victory Scipio was awarded the title 'Conqueror of Africa', thus he would be known to history as Scipio Africanus. 

Battle Of Zama  Cornelius Cort, 16th Cent. 

Two powerful foreign entities commanded by two of ancient history's most brilliant generals invaded Italy and sought to subdue the Romans, but were themselves defeated. Rome went on to conquer and claim Carthage and northern Africa, then continued their move east into the Balkans fully subduing Illyria, Macedonia, Thrace and the Grecian states. The formerly harassed Romans were now the harassing entity in the Mediterranean, adding kingdom after kingdom to their now growing imperial realm. 

The orderly Roman legions, though successful time and again, would face danger and defeat in the course of their empirical endeavors. The slave revolt of Spartacus in the 1st century BC caused Rome as much worry as did Hannibal's invasion, with whole bands of escaped, wild gladiators terrorizing the countryside. This slave army defeated several Roman legions but met their match in a battle with the general Crassus who, like his predecessors, studied the defeats and turned these tactics on his foes, finally defeating the slave army of Spartacus in 71 AD in the region of present day Calabria in Italy's south. After the battle, some 6,000 of the captured slaves and gladiators were crucified as a reminder to those who would dare to challenge the power of Rome. This revolt was a cause for worry, but also was a cause for the Romans to demonstrate to history their uncanny ability to persevere. We might wish to add to the list of Roman woes the invasion of Germany in 9 AD where the legions were defeated and virtually annihilated in the Teutoburg Forest. The Romans were masters of battle on an open field but were unaccustomed to fighting in the woods, where their commanders could not effectively command their troops. However, in time the conquerors would learn the weaknesses of their enemies and could eventually defeat them. One interesting mention in the annals is the use of long and heavy swords by the Germanic tribes which could split a man in two. The Germanic weapons were quite the opposite of the Roman weapon of choice, the short hispanic gladius, which was used for close in fighting. The Romans learned to deal with the vicious blows of the heavy swords and axes of their barbarian foes- the legionnaire would block the heavy weapon with his 'scutum' shield and would stab at the exposed underbelly of the enemy warrior as he raised his heavy weapon, which sometimes required the use of two hands, to deliver the death blow. Moving as a unit, the Roman lines would cut their way through the enemy, slicing torsos along the way and effectively disarming the wielders of those terrible, heavy weapons. In the wars against the Persian empire, Rome would face defeat again in confronting the horse mounted cavalry of the Parthians and Sassanians who were covered in weighty chain mail literally from 'head to hoof' yet they too could achieve victory after eventually studying Persian tactics and turning them around.

What we could surmise from Roman military history is that this brilliant military war machine learned from mistakes and would eventually emerge more powerful than before. It is amazing how the Roman legions could adapt tactics and techniques so rapidly and achieve the success that made the Roman empire the all powerful entity it was, lasting in the west until the 5th century AD and in the east in the form of Byzantium until the mid 15th century. The walls of the eastern Roman capital city of Constantinople were never breached except when Crusaders stormed the walls in 1204 and when the Ottomans under Mehmet The Conqueror took the city in 1453. We might also wish to mention that terrible weapon used to turn ships to cinders, known as 'Greek Fire', which turned back navies intent on conquest. In short, the legacy of the civilization of Rome was one of inventiveness and flexibility which gave them mastery of a portion of the then known world for more than a millennium. 

Silver Embossed Side Of A Chariot, Etruscan 6th Cent BC

We should ask the question then as to why these Romans were so successful time and again against so many obstacles and odds? Every defeat was turned into a vengeance that saw either the complete decimation of their foes as in the destruction of Carthage, or in the very least, their uncanny ability to resist dangerous foes such as the Germanic tribes or the equally flexible and organized Persians. I believe the answer lies in the early history and nature of ancient Italy. The city of Rome was built by the tribe known as the Latini, one of many tribes who lived in the peninsula in classical era. These various tribes were warlike and feuded constantly with one another, all in the shadow of the great Etruscan civilization in the north and the colonizing Greeks who settled in Sicily and southern Italy, founding new cities so as to exploit the volcanic earth for the production of excellent wheat, olives, grapes and the pasturing of cattle and sheep, to feed their city states back in Greece proper. There were other migrants to Italy at the time from the Balkans and people who came down from the Alps. This was a chaotic time that saw disparate tribes and clans fighting with one another for control of fertile valleys and plains amid mountainous terrain. Loins brought forth mouths to feed and land was needed to provide food for these mouths, hence the reason for the clash of tribe and clan so prominent in ancient society and for our purposes, here in crowded Italy. 

  Digital Rendition Of A Typical Samnite Warrior

After the legendary founding of Rome by one Romulus, who killed his brother in a duel and became the first king of the Latium, his city was built upon seven hills in the Alba Longa region and was named for him. Seeking to annex territory, the Latini went to war with their neighbors or with the Greek colonizers and established their presence in central Italy. They conquered the Umbrians and the Sabines, for whom a great story unfolded which was noted in several Renaissance paintings, of how they raped the women, thus incorporating them into the future Roman nation. Long before Rome expanded to become the imperial empire it did on foreign soil, she attacked and conquered her neighbors for a variety of reasons. Add to this alliances made or broken with the Greek colonists, the Etruscans and others and we understand the necessity to be disciplined and organized, and to be stoic enough to accept defeat and loss. It was this time in Italy's early chaotic history that the great epics that became the later literature of classical Rome were based on, such as the migrations and doings of the Trojan Aeneas and the warrior maiden Camilla of the Volsci. 

Samnite Depiction Of Warriors Engaged In Mutual Combat, 4th Cent. BC

While the brilliant civilization of the mysterious Etruscans reigned in Italy's north, creating excellent art and painting depicting the lives of a highly sophisticated populace enamored with pleasure, other tribal kingdoms stood in stark contrast. Perhaps early Rome's greatest challenge came from a tribe known as the Samnites. These were a powerful tribe who inhabited the inner, mountainous region of south central Italy. They were warlike and formidable and attained a reputation of ferocity. For entertainment they pit warriors against one another in  duels to the death, which the Romans would adopt as their own public entertainment and raise the practice of the gladiator to a spectacle in the coliseum. Even the Greeks thought it wise to not deal with these fierce people, preferring trade and exchange over confrontation. These were people who excelled in the making of swords, armor and shields, their art portraying the life of the warrior and the hero. These were a people enraptured not by beauty and art but were rather in love with martial prowess, like the Spartans, Thracians and Illyrians across the Adriatic in the Balkans. The Romans would challenge this entity but would learn that the price for expansion could be costly against such a determined and fierce foe in a series of wars, three to be exact,  that lasted from 343 BC to 290 BC. 

The Samnites invaded and defeated the settlement of Capua, a rich city on the Campanian plain between Rome and the Greek city of Neapolis. The Capuans were descended from the Samnites. Having established their own nation, they sought an alliance with the Romans and placed themselves under Roman rule so as to attain protection from the Samnites. Thus the first of three wars between Rome and the Samnites evolved. Later Roman historians portrayed the Roman intervention as a noble cause to assist the underdog as it were, but it is obvious that the Latins were seeking power and the annexing of territory. The Romans were at first successful against the Samnites, but in a series of three wars they learned just how formidable their foes could be. At Caudine Forks an entire Roman army became trapped between two hills surrounded by the Samnites who could have easily destroyed them. However, they thought it prudish to let the Latins go so as to attain a treaty. The Samnites would later regret this decision as war resumed in earnest. The clever Samnites then made alliances with the Etruscans, with Epirus across the Adriatic and with various Gallic tribesmen expressing the idea that Rome was dangerous and had to be stopped. The three Samnite wars were bloody and cruel, as the Etruscan and later Roman art work and literature created for and about these series of events viscerally depicts. The Romans attained some notable victories but at times also were defeated by the fierce mountain people. Finally, after this series of wars which saw Rome dominate Italy and subdue those neighbors who sided against her, Pyrrhus the king of Epirus invaded Italy and the Samnites tried once more to resist the Romans by allying themselves with the general. Pyrrhus was however defeated and left Italy, thereby ensuring the fate of the Samnites and all other Italian kingdoms and nations. 

The Ferocity Of Ancient War: Etruscan Urn Depicting Furious Combat Between Two Warriors
Who Simultaneously Slay Each Other

The Romans displayed a genius for incorporating their conquered foes which would become a hallmark of Roman conquest and rule. The subject peoples were given the right to become citizens of the state, joining their conquerors as fellow Romans provided their loyalty would be assured. Even the Sabines, whom the Romans punished with a vengeance- raping their women and taking their children as slaves for siding with the Samnites, were eventually incorporated. Rome emerged from these encounters the victor and soon, all Italy was secured. The Samnites, the Capuans and the Umbrians, the Volsci, the Etruscans were all were absorbed in the new paradigm, and their individual independence ended. Speakers of Greek who lived along the coast eventually became speakers of Latin, though Greek would remain as the language of education. The art of the former nations would inspire and inform Roman culture, who in turn would apply their expertise in the establishment of an empire that dwarfed any before them. Rome would go on to conquer and fight wars, a powerful military entity in her own right, and while she knew great victories also knew how to overcome defeats, learning from the experience of the Samnite wars for which the Roman soul would forever be indebted. She would face the legions of Hannibal or the cavalry of the Sassanian kings with a professionalism and a sense of purpose backed up by the tales and stories of these early, chaotic days of Italy's distant past, a lost era of what once was and became, due to the genius and perseverance of the stoic Romans. The source for Roman strength, relentless determination and will can be traced back to the wars fought for the dominance of the Italian peninsula against fierce tribal neighbors. These early wars and struggles brought about the creation of what would become the Roman empire. 

Sculptured Head Of An Italic king, 5th Cent. BC

Ismail Butera, 2021

The Inspiration Of Ancient Italy

 

Minerva approaches the Sun god Apollo in his chariot, Chicago Art Museum

We are all familiar with the legacy of the mighty Roman empire, that imperial power which dominated all of southern Europe and much of the western portion of that continent, the Balkans into Dacia, a region that became known as Romania due to massive Roman colonization, as well North Africa and the Middle East up to the borders of the realm of Rome's eventual rival, Persia. This was a civilization that lasted for centuries ruling from a pagan Rome itself in the homeland of the Italian peninsula, then continued in the Christianized form of what was known as Byzantium in the city of Constantine, there on the shores of the Bosphorus, that strait that separates Europe from Asia. Rome is probably the most influential entity in (at least) European and Middle Eastern history. I use 'is' rather than 'was' because her legacy is far too monumental and her impact so profound one cannot dismiss Rome and merely a 'has been' civilization. There are so many aspects of our modern life that have been shaped by the Roman legacy that we cannot ignore her importance in the study of history. Rome was and remains a giant in this regard. 

Like most civilizations and empires, Rome wasn't built in a day, to coin the phrase, but rather developed over many centuries from the common experience of a simple tribe of people who shared a common experience as they migrated south into the Italian peninsula. This rule of rising from humble beginnings to glory applies to many other ancient and medieval peoples who rose to command or influence the lives of multitudes in history- Persians, Ottomans, Aztecs, Moghuls, Arab caliphates, the Dorians and the Aryans, the Hebrews, all at one time obscure groups of wanderers or simple tillers of the soil who rose to fame and prominence by their sheer will to survive or push on, their destiny shaped by the reality of their existence and the shared experiences of the members of their particular tribe as they reacted to sometimes insurmountable odds. The early Romans were no different, as tribes of Indo European speakers moved south into the Italian peninsula in the later Bronze Age, various groups settling in different regions where they began to till the soil, smelt metal and create the beginnings of what would become ancient Italy.

Etruscan sarchophagus, reclining couple

Most of these groups and tribes were speakers of an Indo European language while others were not, such as the Etruscans who created what was the most glorious and advanced culture in ancient Italy, renown for their sophisticated art and highly decorated tombs of  which several have survived. The Etruscan artifacts we have- the frescoes and friezes, the pottery and the household items, the exquisitely carved sarcophagi created to honor their deceased family members reveal a people inclined to a life of pleasure, a civilization that enjoyed music and dance, eating and drinking or simply reclining with one's spouse or spending an afternoon entangled in the arms of a lover. Their metallurgy reached the highest levels of technology and creativity, as reflected in the amazingly excellent condition of the arms, armor and decorated war chariots which have survived the ravages of nature and human alike. We know little about their language or their origins and several theories have been put forth for these people. Some claim they were immigrants from Asia Minor who settled in the region of northern Italy which in time became known as Etruria, or land of the Etruscans. There certainly is the myth of one Aeneas, who fled Troy upon the sacking of that city by the Achaean Greeks. However, some linguists claim that the Trojans were themselves an Indo European people with ties to the Thracians of the Balkans, also an Indo European folk. There is a theory that the Etruscans were related to the Armenians, but again, this language like Hittite belongs to the Indo European family group. The ancient pre Aryan Pelasgians, supposed ancestors of the later Greeks and Balkan peoples such as the Illyrians, both of whom spoke Indo European, are another group mentioned as possibility, as well as other nations who may have been from the Levant, indicating a proto Semitic/Canaanite origin. But so far, only the proposing of theories continues to challenge the most probable fact- the Etruscans were an ancient aboriginal people, like the Sicani of Sicily, who inhabited the land long before the coming of the speakers of Aryan languages and created an already high established culture. The Roman writer Livy attempted to link the Etruscans with Alpine peoples, as ancient authors were well experienced with creating narratives that may have had little to do with reality but more with impressing the emperor or that sense of moral compass that was required to unify the empire. Nobody can be sure just who these mysterious people were or what their language was like, but the common consensus is that they were not speakers of an Aryan tongue. 

Etruscan frieze depicting dancing couple

Well preserved and finely wrought Etruscan armor, 6th century BC

The original tribe of those who would go on to create Rome were known as the Latini, from which we get the name of their language, Latin. They settled in the hills where Rome has been located for millennia. There were other tribes living in the peninsula as well. Just as the Greek city states would grow larger in population over time and cause them to compete for farming and herding land, so did these tribes in Italy begin to compete and feud with each other as well. The Greek city states in fact were forced to seek new land to feed their small cities, so they explored and eventually colonized the coasts of southern Italy and Sicily, pushing back the native inhabitants and settling along the coast to support Greek city state maritime trade, ignoring the then semi barbaric peoples of the interior. The Greek colonists traded with these peoples and maintained a healthy relationship with the highly civilized Etruscans, and we can see the influence of each culture upon the other in the surviving artifacts. Though the colonization process took some time, the Greeks were well established in southern Italy and Sicily by the 6th century BC. The new cities they developed in 'Magna Graecia' such as Naples; Neapolis is Greek for 'new city', as well as in those impressive urban centers in Sicily such as Syracuse and Akragas (Agrigento) all were busy trading with the city states of the Greek mainland and as a result made alliances with these cities. As the city states competed for the abundance of the southern Italian land, which was fertile and volcanic and produced the excellent wheat which fed Corinth, Sparta and Athens, they naturally went to war with one another. While the Greek city states were engaged in nearly constant warfare for control of the wheat fields and orchards of the south, the Italic peoples in the interior of the peninsula also engaged in war, as the Latium people began to expand. The rise of the Roman empire had begun. 

The Sabine Women, Jaques Louis Davide 1808

The tribe of Latium established a legend which would go on to be the very foundation of Rome's glorious rise, the story of Romulus and Remus, those orphan twins suckled by a she wolf. Their parents are said to have placed them in a basket and sent them to float down the river Tiber, this being an ancient narrative which gave us several tales, among them the story of Moses and the founder of the Akkadian empire, the great Sargon, both of whom were supposedly placed into floating baskets to be left for the gods to decide what their fate. The two brothers, like their ruler predecessors, were always quarreling with one another. The Latium needed to be unified, so hence the legend- Romulus killed his brother in a duel and assumed the throne, thus considered the founder of Rome.

As the population of Latium began to increase, they looked at the lands of their neighbors who were in competition with them, the Umbrians and the powerful Samnites. Early Rome was engaged in a state of constant warfare. They  conquered the tribe of the Sabines, the rape of their women a powerful and compelling tale which inspired famous paintings by such Renaissance and classical artists as Jaques Louis-Davide and Rubens, among others. Eventually, they defeated the warlike Samnites and went on to establish their city on the Tiber, built upon seven hills. After the early Romans established their presence and consolidated their power in central Italy the cultures they conquered or overpowered were absorbed into this new political entity, each of them contributing their share to what would become Roman art, folklore and lifestyle. From the colonized Greek cities the Romans took much indeed, and soon the Romans would challenge the Greek presence and conquer southern Italy and Sicily, fighting wars against such generals as the great Pyrrhus of Epirus and Hannibal of Carthage. In these struggles which at times saw the defeat of the Roman armies by these military geniuses, the Romans patiently swallowed their pride and rallied, learning by mistake and adapting new tactics and strategies. For moral support and spiritual strength they turned to their ancient legends, myths and tales which hearkened back to an earlier time of heroes and champions, just as every other ancient civilization. The stories of a long gone era always inspire us to go ahead and move on amid struggle and travesty, and Roman parents saw to it that their offspring would be the very manifestation of those ancient, unbeatable champions of old. Like the ancient Spartans, Rome would achieve this but on a grander scale, for while Sparta's reputation for war and bravery was as a city state, Rome was destined to conquer the world. 

Etruscan war chariot, 5th century BC  Metropolitan Museum, NY

Heralding back in time to those early years, there were many stories Roman bards could call upon to explain their past. In these ancient myths and legends we read not only about the founding of Rome but also mentions of other elements which contributed to Roman identity. The earliest Latin author, in fact considered the father of Roman literature was Quintus Ennius who lived in the 2nd century BC. The story of Aeneas the Trojan fleeing to Italy after the sacking of his city of Troy gave the Romans a sense of a great and dignified heritage in that they were descended from a race of heroes, as composed by the great poet Virgil in his work the Aeneid. This and other stories seem to suggest migration from Troy or more specifically, other lands, which certainly must have occurred early on in history. Homer's Odyssey was considered an important work, here the Greek hero's name was changed to Ulysses, while all his exploits with the cyclops, the Sirens and the sea monsters of the Straits of Scylla in Sicily were duly noted. As in nearly every culture and civilization, the myths which provided the moral backbone of Roman society with bravery and virtue were laden with stories of events and gender roles that defied the general view of their world. These tales from Roman mythology were formulated based on events that supposedly occurred in this earlier chaotic time, and the peoples and places described within inform us of that time for which we know so little about, a pre history if you will. 

One such story from the Roman epic cycle was the tale of Camilla, made popular by the author Virgil in his Aeneid. Scholars of literature still debate whether the tale was an ancient Italian story or was created by Virgil himself, drawing from earlier Greek stories of the Amazons. What we do know is that many ancient civilizations which were firmly patriarchal in their heyday were entertained by stories from the repertoires of bards told of fierce warrior women who lived in an earlier age. This was somewhat convenient since in Greece, Rome and India these tales were myths and stories to be told but were never meant for the women folk of that society to imitate. Yet, it was the duty of women to nurture the young, their task to instill in their children the values and virtues of bravery and striving to defend the nation and the society from enemies. A strong woman figure reinforced these values in the form of an armored warrior who would gladly face death and even prefer it, to a life of slavery. 

Camilla was said to be the daughter of one Metabus, a king of the Volsci, one of the tribes that lived in the peninsula. He was a victim of the previously mentioned tribal chaos that marked the life of early Italian tribes, as he was overthrown by his rivals and forced to flee, carrying his small daughter Camilla with him. A chase ensued over the hills and through the woods as the rebels wanted the king dead. When the rebels were close behind Metabus tied his daughter to his spear and threw it to the other side of a river gorge, invoking the goddess Diana to care for his daughter and teach her how to survive. Some stories claim that the rebels caught Metabus and killed him, and unsuccessfully searched for Camilla who was now safely across the gorge, having been found by a wild mare who took the babe as her own and nursed her. As a result, Camilla learned to tame and ride horses well and grew into a huntress who knew the woods and the forests, protecting the farms of those she was friends with, very much like the Greek story of Cyrene. Camilla soon rose to become the queen of the Volsci and sought revenge for her father's death. 

Camilla is the source of many epic tales in which she proved her talent with the sword, spear and bow against enemies and competitors. She was considered fleeting of foot, and could run atop wheat fields and never harm the chaff, or skip over water so briskly her feet never became wet. After a career of winning duels and battles against her foes, she would meet the hero Aeneas, who was a migrant seeking a new life in Italy. He himself settled in the land, making alliances and offering his services, fighting with various tribes and clans. Here he met the original inhabitants who are described as fierce fighters, and made an alliance with the Etruscans who had been at war with one King Turnus of the Patulli, an allied tribe of the Volsci. Perhaps seeing their land inundated by these migrant Trojans, Greeks and other peoples, or fearful of being forced out by these populous foreigners; much like the Native Americans in the face of European expansion in the New World...Camilla set out to assist the Patulli against the forces of the Etruscans and their ally, Aeneas. 

In a pitched battle Camilla and her attendant Opis, another fierce warrior woman, slew many Etruscans and Trojans. Unable to slay her in hand to hand combat, as evidenced by her victims who lay now in heaps on the battlefield, an Etruscan warrior named Arruns pulls his powerful bow and lets loose a swift arrow that strikes the Volscian queen in the breast. In some versions of the story Arruns kills her with a spear, but it is clear that she had to be dispatched by a weapon from a distance, for no man will dare approach her and live to tell of the encounter, so effective was her sword or battle ax. The death of Camilla was a theme for several Renaissance artists and her story was quite popular in the later Middle Ages. After she is mortally wounded Camilla lives long enough to tell her beloved attendant Opis who it was who killed her, and swears her to an oath to seek revenge. Camiila witnesses the death of Arruns by the hand of Opis, who cuts off his head and holds it aloft for all to see. The Etruscans, Aeneas and the Trojan allies flee from the field in horror as Camilla nods approvingly to Opis, smiles softly, then closes her eyes and expires. 

Such stories from the pre history of what we know of as ancient civilizations ie: the ancient history for the ancients themselves, reveal much for us to ponder about life before the rise of those civilizations we considered to be part of our own history. These myths and tales reveal to us clues about the early history itself, indicating lifestyle and gender roles that were quite different from the noted civilization itself. mentions of various nations and peoples seem to support the work and findings of historians who themselves date and classify artifacts, with the different styles of art causing us to think about the many migrations that occurred in the most ancient times. Rome inherited the stories and the culture of these early Italic peoples, using Greek methods to discern and define their culture. They did indeed put their own stamp on this new inherited culture and set out to conquer the world. For better or for worse, Rome subdued nations but also was inclusive as they allowed the vanquished to participate in what would collectively become a unified Roman victory. Rome's government became the complete opposite of what the tribes of her pre history experienced, perhaps that experience of the years of chaos informed the Romans of what not to do. For sure, there were many civil wars and rebellions in Rome's history, echoing that ancient chaotic past, yet the restoration of order became the norm for Roman rule. 

Whenever Rome was threatened, such as by Pyrrhus of Epirus or the Carthaginian general Hannibal, or when they engaged in one of the many wars they fought with the empire of Persia, we can rest assured that the bards who accompanied the legions recited such tales of old to inform the legionnaires of what they were fighting for, though most came from every province of the empire. Diverse they were, but united by a dream and vision inspired and influenced by the desire for humanity to establish order amid chaos. It was the tales of that pre historic, ancient era which produced heroes and champions who themselves were examples of order and rule in their time that directed the Romans to create lex, or law and the concept of 'civitas'. Rome ruthlessly conquered but Rome shared and gave, and was perhaps the most influential entity in all human history. 

Ismail Butera, 2021

The Sword of Skanderbeg In History & Legend

In the western Balkans on the shores of the Adriatic Sea is a land known as Albania, a predominantly mountainous land known in the 15th century as Arberia. The people who lived there spoke an Indo European language that, while related somewhat to Greek and Latin was quite distinct from those languages as well, unintelligible to the speakers of those languages. Some claim that these people were the descendants of the ancient Illyrians and in the day to day lives maintained many of the social norms and traditions of their ancient past. The people were divided into clans based on bloodlines, and loyalty to clan was the most important means of identifying one's self. The towns were governed by feudal lords much as the rest of Europe was in the Middle Ages and like the ancient Greek city states these feudal lords and their families fought with other lords from other families, using the unwritten law known simply as the 'Kanun' which was based on the concept of Besa, or the solemn word which was meant to preserve family honor and name at all costs. This was medieval feudalism perfectly defined, with all its pageantry, pride and indeed, bloodshed. 

The history of the Balkans in southeastern Europe is a continuous story of invasion by foreign peoples and powers seeking to move east, west, north or south to attain their goals of conquest and domination. The nations of this region were seen as being merely 'in the way' and a hindrance to these goals and aspirations, and the conquerors would use every effort and any technique to subdue the rebellious populations so the greater prize would become easier to reach. The Romans pushed east to conquer Greece and then Asia Minor, the Slavs inundated the Balkans in their southward migrations, the Turkish peoples moved west and north, all leaving an imprint on the lives and mentality of the locals. The Balkan peoples were individualistic, independent and separate, due in large part to mountainous geography and a sense of belonging to a tribe or clan rather than to a united nation, much as the ancient Greeks divided themselves into city states rather than as a single entity. One was aware of similarities in language and culture but allegiance stopped there, and the various families, clans and tribes often engaged in warfare with one another, just as the ancient Greek city states did. This individuality was a feature of what would be known as Western civilization and would be seen again and again- in the feudalism of the Middle Ages, during the Italian Renaissance, in the age of secular democracy and the creation of nation states, even unto our own time with the constant conversations of disagreement of the so called 'European Union'. The West, though insisting on the natural rights of the individual so as to create order out of chaos, seems to constantly return to its ancient Greek heritage, that all important expression of individualism, which dictates politics and policies even in our own time. To unite differing, individualistic peoples and expressions requires either economic stimulation or a genius who can unite the disparate peoples into one entity. Our story is about one such man who lived in a nation that in our own time was considered Europe's forgotten, lost and exotic land, yet this man and his nation played an important role in preserving what we know of as Western civilization. The German chancellor Otto Von Bismarck, himself a powerful personality who forged Germany into one unified nation created out of such disparate and divided feudal states, speaking about the then competitive nature of mistrustful industrialized European nations, prior to what became World War I, said- "in the Balkans, little things have a tendency to become big things, and it will be there where some damned, little spark will set off the great conflagration that will consume us all". He was correct, as competing Western interests played their game in the Balkans, exploiting the fierce individualism of the native people and their own, very European nationalism. Gavrilo Princip assassinated the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in the pleasant but relevantly unimportant town of Sarajevo in Bosnia, in 1914. Europe was about to enter a terrible war the likes of which few could contemplate. Little things become big things, time and again, in this region of old Europe.

The Ottoman Empire began in Anatolia, created by one Ertegrul,  a Turkish chieftain who converted to Islam in the 14th century, who named his son and successor Osman, hence the name Osmanli or Ottoman. Acting as a mercenary force, these Turkish tribesmen fought for grazing land for whomever would hire them, including the Byzantine Empire who ruled from their capital in Constantinople. So effective and helpful were these tough tribesmen that the Byzantines, knowing well their power was waning since it once was the glory and the very bastion of the eastern Roman Empire, that they sometimes compromised with these tribesmen from the east. They willingly transported hordes of these fierce warriors by boat from Asia to Europe, fighting against the enemies of the Byzantine Empire such as the Bulgarians who also were now growing in power. But just as the German tribes as mercenaries once serving the Roman empire grew in confidence and power and one day overwhelmed their former employers, so did these Ottomans. They began to subdue the one time competitors of the Byzantines and took the land and the booty for themselves. Byzantium, once a large empire that controlled much of the Mediterranean and parts of the Middle East soon became surrounded by this new entity. Only the land around the city of Constantinople was spared as the Ottoman Empire began to grow and grow, conquering much of Greece and the Balkans. Their armies reached Hungary in the north and conquered Albania on the Adriatic Sea, putting the Ottomans in conflict with Western powers such as Venice and the allied forces of the Papacy itself, such as the Aragonese of Spain and the Angevins of France. In 1369, the Ottomans ruled from their new capital at Edirne, that legendary city of Adrianople (Hadrianopolis, Hadrian's City) From there they collected taxes and initiated campaigns in their aggressive attempt to build their own empire, replete with glory and greatness. 

The Ottomans used religion as a means to govern, as most nations of the time did. Historian Will Durant referred to the Middle Ages as 'The Age Of Faith', when organized religion was at the center of social and political life and religious leaders and representatives were seen as the literal 'Shadow Of God Upon The Earth', which was the title conferred upon the Turkish Sultan, who took the title of 'Khalifat 'l Islam', God's own very vice regent in this world. While the Turks were not all fanatics and in fact many still maintained much of their shamanistic past, they knew very well as anyone did that religion in the day could be used to unify an empire- The Persians achieved this unity in the 3rd century AD, establishing Zoroastrianism as their state religion. The Romans achieved such unity with Christianity in the 4th century AD and the Arabs did the same with Islam after the 7th century AD. Exploiting the religious rifts which did exist in the Balkans at the time between the Latin Catholic West and the Greek Orthodox East, as well as the persecution by both of these entities against the heretical Bogomils who were numerous especially in Bulgaria and Bosnia, the Ottomans created institutions to deal with the bickering faiths and ethnic differences of their new empire. The jizya was a religiously supported tax imposed on non Muslims, who by paying were exempt from forced conversion and were dismissed from military conscription. Churches could be maintained and religious rites guaranteed though limited or restricted accordingly by the emotions or whims of the local Ottoman governor. Those who chose to convert could rise in power by joining the army, after which one could attain to a position of political rank such as an aga (landlord) a bey (prince) or pasha (governor) if the convert displayed courage in battle and leadership skills. This was in direct imitation of the ancient Romans who also allowed foreign subjects to become powerful in the military and thus, the political fields. 

From the 1953 Albanian/Soviet film Skanderbeg: 

Gjon Kastrioti reminding his son never to forget his homeland

One peculiar Ottoman institution was known as 'devshirme', which resembled the Fatimid Egyptian institution of the Mamelukes, slave warriors forcibly taken and raised as warriors. In the devshirme system, Ottoman officers would visit the towns and villages of the the non Muslim subjects and inspect their young boys for strength, stamina and intelligence. Those deemed fit for service were forcibly taken. While there is evidence that this became a business venture for some Balkan families, as the Ottomans would pay handsomely for the exceptional youths of ruling families, the vision of lads no more than seven, eight or ten years of age ripped from their mothers arms was real enough. The Balkan folk repertoire of songs and motifs from folk art is replete with the reality of this tragic event which occurred regularly every seven years. Farmers were particularly negatively affected by this institution, as a child was a necessary farmhand in an agricultural society. Sometimes several boys from one family might be forcibly taken, which could affect the family's ability to sow and harvest crops, along with the anguish any parent would feel at the forced loss of their offspring. This might compel the family to convert to Islam so they wouldn't have to pay the jizya tax. One horrible method that was utilized so the family might preserve their son was to maim the child by burning body limbs with hot irons, or to break a leg or an arm so as to render him unfit for service. The Ottoman authorities recognized and identified these techniques and initiated severe punishments for those accused of such acts, which were seen as contempt for the rule of law.

The boys were taken away, never to return. The reason they were taken was to be initiated in the regiment of the Jannisary, a crack unit sworn to protect the empire, their name in Turkish being Yeni Sher or new troops. Forced to swear allegiance to their Sultan and commanders, they were forcibly converted to Islam upon entering their training. Interestingly, they were not allowed to marry, essentially a very non Islamic belief, as celibacy was and is frowned upon in Islamic religious circles. They underwent a rigorous training that was on a par with what the ancient Spartans or Roman gladiators underwent. They went to school as well and learned reading, writing and history. Many Ottoman pashas and beys of historical renown who would go on to become rulers of various cities and provinces in the empire attained the respectable title 'effendi' or sire, as many became known as men of letters and high intellect. But they were expected to be warriors first and foremost and swore to die rather than retreat in battle, even if the battle be against their own nation or families. In this way the Ottomans saw a means to break down family structure and effectively control the disparate peoples of their growing empire. In many of the battles of the era, when the Jannisary were sent in they were ordered not to return but as victors, and their presence on the field was often enough to cause their enemies to flee in the hope to live to fight another day. Marching in orderly formation, again much like the Roman legions of old, their banners unfurled with orchestras of trumpets and various horns as well as great drums and cymbals crashing about, the Jannisary moved forward slowly and intently, their distinctive and somewhat strange uniforms identified them alongside their fellow 'sipahis' who wore weighty chain mail and plate armor that glistened in the Sun topped with pointed helmets bearing swords, axes and lances, their armor jingling in time as they marched to annihilate their foes. This fearsome force was the cream of the Ottoman military; yet ironically, not one Jannisary was born as a Muslim or a Turk, but was taken as a hostage in youth and forced into a life that was ordained for him by the conquerors of his people and his nation. 

Gjergi Kastrioti was born in 1405, the son of one such powerful feudal prince. His name comes from the region of Diber in eastern Albania near what is now the modern Republic of North Macedonia, Kastriot. Some Ottoman sources claim his village was named Sina. His father Gjon Kastrioti ruled over several regions and commanded some of Albania's fiercest clans, the Mirditae and the inhabitants of Mati- the latter name supposedly from the Albanian word 'emathe' which means large or tall, as the inhabitants of this region are renown for their stature. The feudal and bickering Albanians were unable to unify and resist the Ottoman invasions and slowly succumbed, reluctantly accepting their rule. Gjergi was taken along with three of his brothers as a hostage in 1415; some historians claim this was done so that his father would not revolt against the empire, while others maintain that he was already a young man when the Ottomans took him away. But popular belief is that Gjergi was taken through the devshirme system and enrolled into the Jannisary corps. When sent into battle he demonstrated amazing ability and proved himself to be a competent soldier, general and commander. The Sultan was so impressed with him that he bestowed upon him the name Iskander Bey- Prince Alexander, named for the great conqueror of the ancient world. He would be known to the world thereafter as the legendary Skanderbeg. 

The future hero was given the rank and title of bey or prince by the Sultan and was granted dominion over several towns, one of them Kruje in the Mati region of Albania. Though he was trusted as a loyal subject of Sultan, he never forgot his roots or his people, nor the suffering caused by the conquerors especially in the taking of young boys as hostages, as he himself was. In a battle at Nis in Serbia leading a cavalry unit of the the Ottoman forces against the Hungarians of Janos Hunyadi, Gjergi Kastrioti Skanderbeg and three hundred fellow Albanian horsemen defected from the battle, fleeing to his dominion town of Kruje. It is said that because of his defection the Ottomans lost the battle of Nis to Hunyadi. There at Kruje on November 28th 1443- the same date Albanians would proclaim their independence from Turkey in 1912 after 450 years of rule...he was welcomed by his people and raised the double-headed eagle banner of revolt against Ottoman rule. He quickly met with various dukes and lords from his homeland to create an alliance to resist the Ottomans, whom he knew would be quick to crush any rebellion, and do so rather brutally. The burning of villages, wholesale rape and slaughter, the taking of slaves and the horrible act of impalement, that Ottoman form of execution reserved for rebellious nobles comparable to the Roman method known as crucifixion, awaited any who dared to defy the Sultan. These lords from such noble families of ancient lineage as the Muzaka, Arianiti, Dukagjini and Thopia clans knew what was in store for them if they failed to oust the Ottomans from their homeland. They convened at what became known as the League of Lezhe and listened to Gjergi Kastrioti in March of 1444, who told them after returning from many forced years of Ottoman service- "I bring you not freedom, but found it here among you, from you my people, my blood. Let us stand as one." So moved by his words, they made a pact giving their solemn pledge, their Besa, that they would rather die than remain as slaves to an invader. 

Gjergi Kastrioti and his followers seized several cities in Albania, including Petrela castle and Svetigrad in what is now Northern Macedonia. Sultan Murad didn't waste any time in responding to what he considered unforgivable treason. He sent an army under the command of one Ali Pasha, nearly thirty thousand strong to punish the rebels and bring back Skanderbeg or his head to the Sultan in Adrianople. Skanderbeg could muster a force of at best about 14,000. But the rebels knew the territory and many of these Albanians, like Skanderbeg, were themselves once trained as deadly and disciplined Jannisary soldiers. They knew their enemy very well and were confident that Gjergi could lead them to victory. At the battle of Torvioli fought in the Summer of 1444, Skanderbeg hid his cavalry in a nearby forest and lured the Ottomans to confront his main force head on, feigning retreat. The Turkish forces attacked viciously and for a moment believed they were easily going to defeat these rebels whom they outnumbered. But at a signal from their commander the hidden cavalry of Arberia rushed out and attacked the Ottomans in their rear. The Albanians redoubled their efforts and the Ottoman force, now caught in a trap was virtually annihilated. This victory echoed across Europe and gained support for Skanderbeg and his revolt, support which included that of the powerful Pope Nicholas in Rome, leader of all Latin Christendom, along with Alphonso of Aragon, ruler of the Kingdom of Naples as well the rulers of other kingdoms such as Burgundy, Bosnia, Hungary and some Serbian lords who ruled towns on the coast of Montenegro. Skanderbeg continued to display his military genius as he and the Albanians defeated army after army which the Ottomans sent to subdue whom they considered insolent rebels. He moved with lightning speed from one region of the country to another, startling both his Ottoman foes and his allies. His tactics and strategy truly proved he lived up to the name the Sultan bestowed upon him as a youth, named for Alexander The Great and like him defeating professional armies vastly more numerous than his own. 

While Skanderbeg did make alliances early on in his campaign, some of these alliances themselves sought to take advantage of the situation. The Venetians long claimed much of the Balkan's western Adriatic shore and at one time or another controlled important trading cities on the coast of Dalmatia and Albania. At first they gave Skanderbeg public support but their intentions were questionable, as they sought to consolidate their own interests. They intervened in this fight in 1447, but not as the allies of the Albanians but as allies of the Ottomans themselves. They attacked several cities in Albania, including the city of Shkoder known by its Italian name Scutari and Durres/Durazzo on the coast. Skanderbeg was fighting the Ottomans in his home region of Diber when he heard of the Venetian betrayal. He soundly defeated the Turkish force, then force marched his army to relieve the siege of Shkoder. To the shock of the Venetians his army appeared at dawn outside the city walls, in the shadow of the great ancient fortress of Rozafat, a citadel important in Albanian folk lore the story of which tells of a man who was forced to supposedly entombed his wife in the foundation of the castle walls to insure that it would stand forever. The Albanians greeted the Venetians with volley after volley of arrows as they attempted attack Skanderbeg's lines. Then, his horsemen charged forward and butchered many Venetians who were now fleeing to the sea to seek refuge on board the ships they came upon. Soon all Venetian possessions in Albania were liberated. 

While they were celebrating victory, this proved to be a trying time for the Albanians. As Skanderbeg returned to his fight against the Ottomans, another former ally turned from him. Djurad Brankovic, a Serbian noble from a principality to the north in Montenegro made a treaty with the Turks. Skanderbeg's own nephew Hamza Kastrioti defected after being bribed and was awarded with command of an entire army. Amid all this chaos and impending lack of unity, at the siege of Berat in the south the Albanians finally tasted defeat. Surrounded by a huge Ottoman force, the city held on for some time commanded by the capable lord Gjergi Arianiti, but without support due to so many defections of commanders and allies the city fell. Many Albanian warriors, as well as their allies from the Aragonese kingdom of Naples were killed in the Ottoman taking and sacking of the city. With the likes of such betrayal causing the loss of citadels and defeats, something unthinkable for him as it struck at the very heart of his core values based on the concept of Besa, Skanderbeg knew that he had to redouble his efforts to maintain this rebellion or all would be lost. He began to realize that he and his people could not fully depend on those who claimed to be friends, but had to rely on themselves. 

Perhaps these commanders and lords saw the writing on the wall, as it were. Sultan Murad died in 1451, succeeded by his formidable son Mehmet II, who swore on his father's death bed that he would see the end of this Balkan prince once and for all. Firstly, Mehmet needed to subdue the once proud legacy of Byzantium and committed to conquering Constantinople, that mother of cities. As he was engaged in this endeavor in which he would be eventually successful, finally taking Constantinople in May of 1453, he sent armies on campaign to defeat the Albanian revolt. All attempts resulted in failure as the Prince of Kastriot continued to defeat every force sent against him. Mehmet sent two large expeditions with strict orders to utterly defeat Skanderbeg, but both campaigns resulted in embarrassing defeat. The conqueror of Constantinople could not conquer this Albanian rebel or the tough people who staunchly supported him. 

Sultan Mehmet Fatih on campaign

Knowing that bribery was having at least some effect among some Albanian nobles, as it did among those neighboring Balkan and Latin kingdoms who jealously vied with each other for power, Mehmet sent a gigantic force of 70,000 men under the command of Skanderbeg's own nephew, Hamza Kastrioti. The Turkish 'akinci' raiders spread out across the land before the army burning, raping and pillaging. Gjergi Kastrioti once again used his strategy, allowing his foes to believe they were on the road to success, feigning retreat as the Ottoman forces advanced. At a place called Uje Bardhe (White Water) the forces of Skanderbeg met the Ottoman avalanche and again defeated it in a vicious battle. In one of the many legends that grew about the hero, Gjergi challenged his nephew Hamza to a trial by combat. He first unhorsed Hamza with his lance, then then two engaged in a sword fight in which Skanderbeg was the victor. He spared Hamza's life but sent him off to live the rest of his days in a prison in Naples, where some say he took his own life out of shame and grief. However, after he defeated Hamza's army in this great victory news came that Gjergi's beloved sister Mamica, who was herself a warrior in Skanderbeg's army, was killed during the battle. Her husband Pal was joined by all of Skanderbeg's army in mourning this brave sister. In Balkan folk stories, one is always reminded that hope and victory are the siblings of tragedy and defeat, just as life is the twin of death itself. 

Poster from the 1953 film Skanderbeg, depicting the slain Mamica, as Skanderbeg unhorses Hamza

In 1457 after the victory at Uje Bardhe Pope Calixtus III, successor to the now deceased Pope Nicholas, declared Gjergi Kastrioti Skanderbeg  the 'Athleta Christis', or the Athlete of Christ. Skanderbeg had blocked the Ottoman invasion of Italy and defeated the aggresive invaders more successfully than anyone else ever did. While the brave nations of Eastern Europe all succumbed to the might of the Ottoman sword- Byzantium and Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Bosnia, eventually Hungary and Romania...it was the sword of Skanderbeg that was the greatest thorn in the side of one of the era's most renown conquerors Mehmet Fatih, who stole Constantinople, the jewel of all Christendom. 

Things were changing though. Pope Calixtus, while publicly supportive had his own problems at home with rivalries and political intrigue and sent less and less actual support to the struggle in the Balkans. Alphonso, king of Naples and Aragon had died. Many of the former Western supporters of the Albanian revolt were facing new problems in their own domains and slowly began to withdraw assistance. Skanderbeg had already made enemies with several native clan leaders as well as some of the city states along the Adriatic and in Europe, such as Venice, who was now ready to offer support but could not ever be trusted. Nonetheless, Skanderbeg was forced to reluctantly agree to an alliance with Venice. He had to rely on his followers and countrymen to maintain the fight for independence. Mehmet The Conqueror invaded Albania once again, this time personally leading his army, and lay siege to Skanderbeg's own city of Kruje. He was the second Sultan to personally lead his army against Skanderbeg and was also the second to be defeated, as his father Murad was years before. Mehmet surrounded the fortress and starved the inhabitants. He ordered the city bombarded day and night, and his forces attempted to scale the walls hourly, but were thrown back every time. Finally, the great conqueror had to admit that he could not at this time take the city, and retreated. The citadel of Kruje, though bloodied and battered remained free, at least for now. 

Remnants of the fortress of Kruje, Albania

The struggle against the world's then most powerful empire took its toll, and the proud Gjergi Kastrioti Skanderbeg finally succumbed to illness in 1478, dying in the town of Lezhe where he years before coordinated the League which united the various clans and factions in Albania in a common struggle against the Ottoman invaders. Upon hearing of his death Sultan Mehmet is reputed to have exclaimed "woe to Christendom, at last Europe and Asia belong to me, for it has lost both its sword and shield!" With the death of their remarkable leader the Albanians continued in their revolt, but lacking cohesive leadership the movement began to fall apart as clans and families resorted to their passionate disagreements, bickering and feuding. 

The aggressive Sultan renewed his efforts and finally in 1478 was able to take Skanderbeg's citadel of Kruje. The legends that developed from the Albanian rebellion of Skanderbeg are a reminder that in this part of the world, the Balkans, the region said to be the where storytelling came into being as an art form, heroes become champions who are then transformed into near deities. The nearly 25 year struggle had implications for both the conquered and the conquerors. In one story, when the citadel of Kruje was forced to submit to Mehmet since all of the able bodied men had been killed, the victorious Turks promised to show mercy to the defenders if they would surrender. Instead, Mehmet gave the order to slaughter the survivors, and the Turkish soldiers brought forth chains to enslave the choicest women and their children who they planned to take as slaves.  The surviving women saw the chains and knew their fate would be the life of a concubine in the harem of some pasha or the Sultan himself. In an act of defiance they ran to the rocky heights just behind Kruje fortress and one by one, with their children, leaped to their deaths rather than become slaves of the invaders. It is said that there was a young orphan boy in Kruje who was a beggar, and was always accompanied by his dog, his only friend. After the women jumped to their deaths onto the rocks below the orphan boy, now alone without the people he knew and depended on all his life did the same, followed by his loyal dog. Mehmet looked on in horror. Angry and perplexed that he was denied the spoils of war he yelled to his commanders; "what kind of people are these? Their women, their children, even their dogs will not submit to anyone! These are the stubborn Arnaut, a people who will not surrender!" 

Those Albanians who could fled to Italy where they settled and created small communities of their own, preserving their language known as Arbereshe which is spoken to this day in parts of Calabria, Basilicata and Sicily. These communities would play a key role in the Albanian national revival of the late 19th and early 20th century. Except among these descendants and others who migrated to Greece, Romania and others lands of the diaspora, Albania was largely forgotten by those same entities in western Europe she protected, and for a time these European nations paid the price of insecurity for that lack of support in fear. Mehmet raided the coast of Italy and sacked the city of Otranto, spreading fear among the populace, greatly worrying the Papacy and Europe. Ottoman pirates raided and attacked Naples, Sicily and Calabria, Nice in France and the coastal ports of Spain. It wouldn't be for another century that Europe was finally able to agree to work together to stop the Ottoman naval menace, finally putting an end to their Mediterranean domination at the sea battle of Lepanto in 1577. Mehmet never conquered Rome, his dream and prize, of which he admitted it was Skanderbeg who blocked him from attaining that notoriety of being the conqueror who achieved the domination of both of Christendom's leading cities. While the Albanian clans continued in their struggle, now alone without the support from the indifferent Latin West, the country was finally subdued and sentenced to 450 years of Ottoman rule and obscurity. Revolts during those centuries were common and the Albanians gained a reputation for being among the most unruly subjects of the empire. When the 17th century Ottoman chronicler Evliya Effendi compiled his volumes for the Sultan, describing the various peoples of the Ottoman Empire, he described the Albanians as 'being brave and honest to a flaw, that they value their word and solemn promise over all else and make their oaths based on this solemn word which is more sacred to them than either the Bible or the Quran. But even their conversion to the true faith of Islam hasn't improved their behavior, for to ask an Albanian to show good manners is like asking a cackling hen to stop!" Rebellious people, indeed. 

Skanderbeg's sword is a legend too. A copy of it, as well as his famous two horned helmet, a similar design to what Alexander The Great wore into battle, is in the Vienna Museum. The sword is a heavy type with a curving blade, and Skanderbeg was known to cut down horse and rider in one fell swoop, as he was considered a capable and fearsome warrior on the battlefield. 

Skanderbeg's sword & helmet, wire art by Albanian artist Mentor Berisha

When the Ottomans finally took Lezhe, the town where a league was formed of Albanian families to create an alliance, they ransacked Skanderbeg's tomb. Turkish soldiers, still clinging to elements of shamanistic religion, made amulets of his bones, believed to bring out strength in the wearer on the field of battle. It is interesting to note that in matters of religion, Albanians have maintained a unity that few other nations were able to do considering the circumstances of the time, a war seen as a struggle between cross and crescent. Many Albanians did convert to Islam eventually, mostly for economic necessity and to save their lands, and to raise themselves in power status over their neighbors who they saw as untrustworthy. The Ottomans knew well of Albanian fearlessness and their military prowess and so offered positions in their army just as the British had done with the once resistant and rebellious Scots. But the experience of Islam among the Albanians would be a unique story, remarkably noted for tolerance. Under Skanderbeg some had already nominally converted to Islam but maintained their loyalty to their people, language, culture. Albanian Muslims had an inclusive tolerance for the followers of Christianity. The Bektashi Sufis became popular among Albanians with their pantheism which synthesized Islamic and Christian beliefs, acting as religious and political mediators, in some respects similar to the Jesuits in Catholic circles in Europe and eventually, in the Americas. One story claims that Skanderbeg heard a song being sung by a wandering dervish in his own language while at the court of the Sultan in Adrianople. When Skanderbeg asked the dervish where he learned the song, the dervish reminded him of who he was and what his purpose in life should be, that freedom and truth are concepts that go beyond the confines of religion. Such examples, and the fact that they spoke and wrote to the people in their native language rather than Arabic or Turkish, appealed to the common folk. The Bektashi eventually became the fervent voice of Albanian nationalism, as their somewhat Shi'a inspired narrative which denounced the idea of the caliphate, with the Sultan for them representing that evil imposter caliphate and their insistence that God and truth alone manifests in all religions, found expression among Albanians. The Bektashi produced many poets and statesmen who kept the Albanian national dream alive over the centuries, and the 19th century apostle poet of Albania, Naim Frasheri, wrote an epic poem about Skanderbeg still taught and quoted among Albanians to this day. Skanderbeg and his double-eagle flag became the symbol of unification of the Albanian people. Albanian Muslims, Bektashis, Catholics and Orthodox live in peace with one another and give Skanderbeg center place in their homes and in their hearts. Albanians took in Jews fleeing the Nazis in  the '30s and all through the WWII years, protecting them with their promise of Besa. When Albania declared independence from Ottoman Turkey on November 28th, 1912- the same date of Skanderbeg's call for the League of Lezhe, after 450 years of rule, they unfurled the banner of Skanderbeg and this remains the nation's flag, as people of all religious backgrounds joined one another in shouting "Rrofte Skanderbeg!"..."long live Skanderbeg!" There is another story that is typically Albanian, which reflects their attitude towards religion; the great hero was born into an Orthodox family, was force converted to Islam, became an associate of the Bektashi Sufi fraternity when he was a Jannisary, then practiced Catholicism and was buried in a Roman Catholic church cemetary. "God is a mystery" they say in Albanian, as "and all roads lead to the unraveling of this mystery, this unraveling is our reason for being."  

Regarding the flag, there is a tale told of an Albanian flag bearer who was wounded during a battle in which the Albanians were facing serious resistance from their Ottoman foes. The flag was originally a black double headed eagle imposed upon a white background. The flag became red when the wounded flag bearer, unwavering in his duty, wrapped the flag around his his bloodied torso which colored the flag with his blood. He climbed to a high point so as to rally his countrymen and shouted- "see my countrymen, with blood do we purchase our freedom!" When they saw the flag bearer the Albanian warriors became inspired and won the day. Thus the flag today is red. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, in his 'Tales Of A Wayside Inn', honored Skanderbeg. Vivaldi wrote an opera. In 1953 a joint Albanian-Soviet effort created the film 'Skanderbeg' which won the International Film Prize at the Cannes festival in the following year. Statues of the hero can be found in many European cities including at the Vatican in Rome, in Paris and in London. Statues and busts of Skanderbeg were considered such a strong national symbol that many sculptures were forcibly removed by the authorities in the former Yugoslavia, angering the Albanian populations living there. After Kossova attained independence from Serbia in 2008 some Muslim imams, mostly from Middle Eastern countries who were among the clergy at the local Prishtina mosque asked the Kossova government to remove the 'idolatrous' statues of Skanderbeg and Mother Teresa in the town square. A coalition of Albanian imams, Sufi leaders, Catholic and Orthodox priests as well as many non descript Albanians all surrounded the statues and joined hands in a symbolic gesture to preserve and protect the statues. The Albanian double headed eagle flag was raised and the crowd sang the Albanian national anthem, Rreth Flamurit Te Per Bashkuar...'together round the flag, united are we in our struggle'. 

Bust of Skanderbeg & Albanian flag, by Albanian artist Odhise Paskali 

The memory of the nations who pretended to be allies in the 15th century but then turned on Skanderbeg has affected the outlook of Albanians as well, and this paranoia and mistrust continued into the 20th century. In The Balkans, to tell a tale from six centuries ago is as pertinent today as it was then. Under the Communist regime of Enver Hoxha in the mid 20th century, Albania was closed off from the rest of the world. Religion, seen as a tool of imperialists and conquerors, was banned. After emerging from the communist era, the Balkan nations have emerged with much fear and mistrust of their neighbors due to the past and policies and actions formulated during the centuries of Ottoman misrule. Much of this mistrust is based on the experiences of the distant past, preserved in memory through folk songs and art which has given way to modern myths and created historical narratives. We have to wonder if the people of the Balkans are ready to move ahead rather than continue to allow the past to affect and guide them. The memory and deeds of Gjergi Kastrioti Skanderbeg has remained alive among Albanians and his story is likely to continue to be told for generations to come, as are the tales of other Balkan heroes and the sacrifices the brave peoples of this region have made and continue to make for the pursuit of their visions, whatever those visions may be. Perhaps a line taken from the Book of Ezekiel in the Bible asks that question most profoundly; 'can these bones live? Oh Lord God, only thou knowest'. 

Copyright Ismail Butera, 2021