The Story Of A Fallen Aztec Goddess: Coyolxauhqui

                                     

The Aztecs maintained a very interesting legend about the founding of their empire. Known as the Mexica, they were said to have wondered about the deserts and mountainous terrain of Mexico for many decades living an insecure and nomadic life until a vision was revealed to their shamans informing them they could settle down in a promised land reserved for them. They were to look for a sign from the gods; an eagle resting upon a cactus clutching a serpent in its beak and claw. It was at this spot where the vision became reality that the once wandering tribe known as the Mexica would build their city Tenochtitlan in honor of the gods and develop the arts of civilization, eventually building a powerful empire before it would be conquered by the Spaniards in the 16th century. 

Like all ancient peoples the Aztecs recorded their history in light of their legends and myths they themselves created. Their gods reflected the lives of humans could either cooperate or struggle against one another in their endeavor to create and bring about the world. Such myths are a people's means of explaining the natural phenomenon around them. And again, like all ancient peoples who created civilizations and cultures, they looked back at a prehistoric time before their civilization came into being. There are notable social changes in society when the transition is made from the nomadic to the settled life. One of these changes is the rise of the male patriarchal attitude importance and the closing or demeaning of the feminine. In religion this translates into the ancient worship of female deities which transforms into the glorification of male gods, and this pattern can be viewed in all historical societies. In ancient Sumer it was Inaana who was worshipped, the goddess of war and fertility. In India Kali and Durga are still worshipped, while in the ancient Indian epics there is mention of many female heroines and warriors. After founding civilization and the creation of books and scriptures, the female heroines begin to take a back seat in favor of male champions. Ancient Greek and Roman epics tell us about Amazons and other warrior women, their gods such as the Greek Athena and the Roman goddess Bellum (the name comes from the Latin word or war) were worshipped and sought for council and advice regarding warfare. These societies placed severe restrictions on women's rights and freedoms, with the eventual accepted narrative that women did not belong on the battlefield but in the kitchen or raising babies at home. 

The Aztec military which built a large empire in MesoAmerica was a male dominated institution, but like other societies their myths reveal otherwise. These myths, like founding myths in many cultures, focus on an ancient, somewhat magical prehistoric era when humans interacted with the gods and were themselves part deity and part mortal. According to the Aztec legends during that prehistoric era they roamed as nomads for generations until they settled and built their capital city. 

The myth and story of Coyolxauhqui reveals this pattern of the replacement of the feminine with male patriarchy in Aztec society. In 1978 in Mexico City a team of workers found a huge, round stone carved sculpture depicting the magnificent female warrior goddess Coyolxauhqui who, according to the legend, was defeated by her brother in battle. The stone carving at first glance seems to show her dancing but at a closer look one can see her body dismembered, as the tale tells this is what occurred after her brother won a battle against her forces. The sculpture, unique in Aztec art, stresses the importance of this rather grim event. 

In the Aztec pantheon, Coyolxauhqui, her name meaning 'she adorned with bells' due to her being depicted wearing bell like ornaments upon her face, was the daughter of Coatlicue the goddess of the Earth and fertility. Her brother was Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and the deity who would lead the Mexica to their promised land. Coyolxauhqui led the Mexica and traveled many leagues through deserts and rocky hills facing many hardships, leading her people and acting as their leader. However, the Mexica suffered defeat in a battle with rival tribes which forced them to eventually find safety on the mountain of Coatepec, the hill of the snake. 

One evening while living on that hill, the earth Goddess Coatlicue was sweeping outside her hut when suddenly beautiful, colorful shining feathers descended from the sky. She picked them up and placed them over her heart. Miraculously, the feathers entered her bosom and disappeared from view as she become conscious of the fact that she was pregnant. Coyolxauhqui demanded to know who the father of this child was but Coatlicue simply recited to her daughter the miraculous events of the day, explaining it as the will of the gods. Believing her mother was lying and fearful that a new dynasty and leadership might replace her own Coyolxauhqui discussed the matter with a group known as the Centzon Huitznahual, or the warrior band of the Four Hundred Brothers. Jealous and angered at this sudden act of fate that threatened to overthrow her position of chief warrior and leader of the military, Coyolxauhqui suggested to the Four Hundred Brothers that her mother Coatlicue must be assassinated. One of members of her band was however a bit disturbed with this plan and slipped away at night to reveal the plan to Coatlicue, who became distraught and cried out to the gods in anguish. At that moment a voice spoke to her from her womb. It was her yet unborn son, the future Huitzilopochtli, who told her not to fret nor worry as he was sent tpo protect her and defeat any who would cause her harm. 

Coyolxauhqui and her force of four hundred climbed to the top of the hill of snakes, Coatepec, intent on slaying the goddess Coatlicue who shivered in fear, protected by a handful of loyal guards. Just as the battle was about to commence Coatlicue gave birth to her new born son Huitzilopochtli, who emerged from the womb dressed and armed as a warrior. He led the loyal bodyguards into the fray and they slew many of the Four Hundred in terrible combat. Finally, in the midst of the battle Huitzilopochtli came upon his sister Coyolxauhqui. The siblings engaged in fierce combat, Coyoxauhqui being armed with a heavy macahuatl sword, a weapon studded with sharp obsidian blades. Huitzilopochtli raised his fire sword named Xiucoatl the 'Fire Serpent' and with one sweep decapitated his sister. Her bloodied head revealing a gaze of shock and terror upon her face flew up high into the sky and became the Moon, while her force of the slain Four Hundred Brothers became the stars. Huitzilopochtli then began to dismember his sister's body and threw her limbs down the hill into a ravine. All the Mexica now acknowledged Coatlicue and her son Huitzilopochtli as supreme. Soon her son would lead them to their promised land as foretold, where they would build their city Tenochtitlan, then an empire so as to attain everlasting glory. 

                                          

The Aztecs utilized this tale to explain the victory of the Sun over the Moon and the stars of the night, an example of the victory-of-light-over-darkness narrative so common among all human societies. Some also believe that this story is a reenacted with the change of the seasons, with Winter representing Coyolxauhqui who is forced every year to yield to the coming of Spring. The new empire justified violence, conquest and sacrifice with this myth. 

                                        

The retelling of this victory was significant and important for the Aztecs who, like many ancient societies after establishing themselves as sophisticated cultures and civilizations, minimized the role of the feminine in society, transforming it from warrior, leader and protecter to household subject. As in ancient Rome or Greece women seldom took part in military campaigns in Aztec history. Only in myth and legend could we learn of the deeds of such powerful female personalities as Coyolxauhqui, who seems to represent a earlier society that treated women as equals. Clearly, the transformation of communities brought about the decline of women in positions of power, thought they remained as spiritual symbols who the populace could love and invoke whenever danger threatened. There were a few powerful queens to be sure, but the Aztec empire remained the realm of men. The example of Coyolxauhqui's demise was a means to dismember not only her body but her power and importance, seemingly purposely defined as an aggressive and jealously greedy woman who needed to be put in her place. These myths and legends of ancient, powerful women are interesting in that they reveal something that later generations may have conveniently forgot, in that women did lead armies and fight in battles in the distant past. This demoting of the feminine may have been a natural occurrence due to the change of gender roles as a society settled into the comforts of civilization rather than forced out of necessity to hunt and gather. The study of these myths of powerful women reveal something hidden within the male psyche, the same mentality that told and retold stories of the necessity to defeat the Amazons, who represented an obstruction to a civilization dominated by males. It all remains a mystery nonetheless. Coyolxuahqui's story is but another example of the process and transformation of ancient societies. 

Copyright Ismail Butera, 2023 

Photos:
Aztec queen and cactus   Photography, Eva Trejo
Coyolxauhqui Stone, discovered Mexico City 1978
Battle on the hill, Duran Codex
The defeated Coyolxuahqui on Snake Hill, Florentine Codex
Aztec princess enthroned, photographer unknown

Attaining Immortality II: The Hero In Prehistoric Art

                                         Warrior posing with archery equipment Tassili N' Ajer, Algeria

It has been traditionally believed that recorded history began with the first civilizations. Sumer, located in what is today Iraq, is considered the first of the great ancient civilizations. Historical research has explored the possibility of even older civilizations, with much of the inspiration coming from the myths and legends that were recounted and maintained by such well documented civilizations as Sumer and Egypt. Archeology is revealing new data regularly. The legends of Atlantis and Lemuria entice historians and inquisitive archeologists alike, spurred on as they were after Schliemann discovered the ruins of Troy and Mycenae, or when the ruins of ancient Anau in Turkestan were uncovered in the late 19th century. Native American mounds in North America have been found to mark the sites of sophisticated settlements unknown and unheard of before. We know of the already documented civilizations, but what of those that existed according to the legends of these civilizations? Every ancient civilization included as part of its literature myths and stories of older cities and cultures. In every myth we might find an element of truth. 

                             Battle scene depicting mounted warriors, Bhimbetka India circa 10,000 BC

Human beings have been expressing themselves through art and storytelling for many millennia prior to the rise of the great, historical civilizations. In the caves of Lascaux in modern day France or at Altamira in Spain, or in the middle of the Sahara desert at Tassili N'Ajer in Algeria, cave art and petroglyphs depict the lives, occupations, beliefs and and events of the inhabitants of long ago, advising us of what they held as important. We don't know who the individuals were or their gender. One such drawing from Algeria (above) of an archer with a fine physique posing with a bow and quiver of projectiles seems remarkably feminine. In the battle scenes from Bhimbetka, India we note warriors mounted upon horses. Art was believed to have been associated with primitive spirituality, especially in the case of such art in caves, for Mankind sought aloneness in subterranean caverns which would inspire later generations to create temples, cathedrals and mosques. The inner Earth represented the womb from where all life issues, and returning to that lair is to return to the source of our existence. Art created in those lairs thus held a sacred place in the hearts of those who descended into such a spiritual place. All that was considered important and pertinent to prehistoric life was depicted on the wall of these caverns, which was represented by nature. It should come as no surprise that herding or the hunting of animals, a primary source of food, clothing and shelter, would be so prominent in such paintings. Survival was the norm for hunter gatherer societies. Animals and their attributes we seen as holy, imbuing the wearer of an amulet fashioned from one of these beasts with power. To attain that amulet, a symbol of the animal's power and the embodiment of its virtues and qualities, one had to go out and hunt that beast. Tribes would organize hunting parties and seek out herds of animals for the eventual kill. Upon their return to the settlement with their catch and trophies, they were greeted as heroes, for their efforts staved off starvation and ensured another period of survival. 

Hunting an animal was not an easy task, as the animal might have to be tracked over rigorous terrain for days on end. Cornering a bear, lion or wooly mammoth usually resulted in a fight to the death, the animal defending itself fiercely. More often than not some members of the hunting party, lacking sophisticated weaponry and technology using but primitive spears, clubs or the bow and arrow were injured or killed in the attempt to slay the beast. Survival in prehistory was a war with nature itself. No wonder these people of the past depicted the hunt as if it were a battle, for great stealth, effort, tact and strength was necessary and required in this dangerous endeavor. Honest to a flaw, these prehistoric artists depicted not only the victory of man over beast but also honored brave souls who may have been gored by a bull or mauled by wolves or a wild cat, depicting and thus honoring them in the glory and silence of death. These images of the deceased have remained anonymous to us for all these millennia but the image painted on the wall of some cave remains a token of this brave person's memory that was meant to live on forever. 

                                                               Hunters, Tassili N'Ajer, Algeria

Cave of the deceased hunter, Lascaux  17,000-15,000 BC 

Groups of people created clans and tribes. If and when food sources became scarce for whatever reason such as drought or disease, these tribes would make war upon one another. We are mistaken to believe that war is a product of civilization, but rather it is seemingly endemic to human kind. The reproduction of humanity, encouraged by the high mortality rate of prehistoric life resulted in more mouths to feed, and more members of a tribe meant that it would grow and become stronger, thus more effective at the hunt and in waging warfare against competing tribes who laid claim to fishing and hunting areas and, with the beginnings of animal husbandry, grazing land. Procuring food for survival was on par in importance with procuring security for the tribe and the clan. These are the foundations of the city state or the kingdom. The images of people engaged in battle, or tribe members armed with weapons became a style and a genre unto itself, thus giving birth to heroic art. In this art we get an idea of how these primitive peoples waged war with one another. 

       Does the appearance of animals imply a battle unfolding over grazing land? 

     Warriors armed with axes, boats in the background, possibly depicting a maritime attack

We also know that the depiction  of war was an honored tradition, as was the creating of the hero-champion. The exploits of this hero-champion would be recounted at the central fire where the members of the clan would gather to hear their stories, sing songs and dance in their honor and please the deities of the sky and Earth with supplication and praise. Individuals, their names lost to history, nonetheless are depicted with an accent on the muscular, perfected human form brandishing their weapons sometimes standing among their peers in what would later develop into the statuary of the Assyrian kings or the pharaohs of Egypt, the sculptures of the gods that would adorn the temples of India or the realistic reproduction of heroes and deities in the art of Greece and Rome. All the elements and aspects of heroism and action that we witness in classical ancient or later medieval heroic or epic art can be found among the cave paintings and petroglyphs of the prehistoric world. Thus it might be said that we are not so different from our ancestors, perhaps only advanced in technology. Yes, we have developed certain understandings about morality and ethics and most of us hope we can one day rid ourselves of war. But on the other hand, what if this is who and what we are? Whenever a danger presents itself to any society, the image of the hero is conjured, sought and replicated so as to reassure the inhabitants of a nation, like the image of the champion was sought to reassure the tribe in  times of danger and stress. Though we might live more comfortably and securely today, the art of the hero and the image of war still fascinates us as it did in the times when our ancestors dwelled in a more insecure era. The question remains as to whether we as a race and a species are naturally prone to make war and accept it as the norm. Perhaps as long as mankind perceives war as a necessity, we will continue to create art that reflects this reality. 

Tadraut Acaceus Cave Painting    Libya  12,000 BC

Copyright Ismail Butera, 2023

Attaining Immortality I: The Heroic Form In Classical Art

This is the first of a series of articles discussing the depiction of the human and physical form in classical art via the lens of warfare through the ages. War is a terrible experience of which most will argue should not be glorified or honored, as we humans are indeed afraid of war and ashamed of our obsession with it. Yet mankind has displayed a fascination with the images of war and violent struggle for many millennia, continually being discovered in our own time in cave paintings and upon the walls of canyons and hillsides as petroglyphs, humans combating wild beasts or each other. Morally, we do speak out and stand against the horrors of war, and this is a good thing, to hope that we could one day finally put an end to it. But for all our efforts and attempts to denounce war, we remain fascinated with its depiction in art- perhaps because we know, though we prefer not to admit it, that war is endemic to our very existence, a feature of what it is to being human. 

                            The Battle Of Milvian Bridge, Giulio Romano 1520  Vatican

      

       'The one way for us to become great, perhaps inimitable, is by imitating the ancients'

                                                                                            ...Johann Joachim Winckelman

A great proponent of the art movement known as Neoclassicism in the later 18th and early 19th centuries, the art historian and archeologist Johann Joachim Winckelman expressed the desire to maintain an already existing tradition in art that he felt possibly was on the wane in his time- the depiction of ancient heroic themes. Portraiture, nature scenes and still life painting were becoming popular just as in the realm of European music, the Romantic Era was about to blossom with personal expression representing a new age of revolution and enlightenment, the foreshadowing of the modern era of which we are a part. The art of rule and social philosophy, like art itself, was undergoing change as the old was being scrutinized and abandoned in favor of new methods of interpreting society. The concept of the individual, the common human being was coming into his or her own, a concept that had it roots in the philosophy of the ancient Greeks, was now being realized in its entirety. During the Renaissance the uniqueness of the individual was stressed, the beauty of human attributes given their due as artists challenged conventional ways to portray humans, though the ancient theme of heroism and bravery in battle was still very much alive. Winckelman seemed to want to preserve this ancient style which was with humanity through the ages, often going hand in hand with the stories and tales recounted about heroes and champions and the deeds of warriors upon the field of battle. Perhaps little compares to the portrayal of human muscular strength and determination as portrayed in art. Anyone, whether cultured and educated or completely uninformed about art, can relate to the depiction of people struggling, determined either to win a battle or bring about social change, as evident in the 20th century murals of social minded artists such as Diego Rivera. The power of the people, the force of the individual together with others, is compelling indeed. For all the concerns Winckelman may have believed that powerful expressions of the human will might be lost unless we endeavor to maintain it, we are still creating and glorifying art with the same message that our ancestors portrayed for millennia. Struggle and endeavor of any kind requires strength and will to attain the desired results, and art immortalizes the emotions and the reactions, the muscle and sinew the expression  of which is endemic to that striving. Perhaps we can credit Winckelman for his efforts, having dedicated his life to preserving the artistic values of the ancient world for all time. 

                                   The Battle Of Zama, Cornelius Cort 1567-68  Art Institute Of Chicago

In the ancient world artists created sculptures, friezes and paintings depicting handsome and beautiful gods, kings and queens, heroes and mortals who were the subjects of the many epics, mythological stories and tales recounted and glorified by bards and storytellers, poets and authors who recorded their stories in writing or recited via oral literature. These characters became household names and their deeds were immortalized and represented on vases, pottery or wall paintings and were in carved stone. Each personality of these stories represented an aspect of life which we all could relate to, fantasize or wish to become. Thus Gilgamesh, Achilles and the goddess Durga were larger than life which may account for the sometimes huge size and sheer majesty of the artwork, often adorning the walls and halls of palaces and temples. Wherever people might be or whatever they were doing, they were reminded of the deeds or the events immortalized on a grand scale. One theme of such art that was popular is the depiction of great battles, immortalizing a memorable struggle or a great victory over a mighty foe. Muscular figures and twisted torsos in various poses gave life and movement to an otherwise still work of art in an age that did not know moving pictures. The bards recounted the tales while the artists envisioned the happenings and the audience knew well the unfolding of the events of a particular story and lessons meant to be learned and embraced from that retelling. The armies of Sumerian kings such as Sargon of Akkad was given due honor in decorated palaces via the creation of colorful painted frescoes depicting armed warriors on foot or making ready for battle in their war chariots. The beloved Sumerian goddess of war and fertility Inaana, who later became known as Ishtar, is an all conquering entity who has been honorably represented in art and poetry, the subject of the world's oldest published poetry by Enheduanna, high priestess of the temple and daughter of the great Sargon himself. Her poetry is considered as the first example of 'published' poetry in that clay tablets bearing her verses written in cuneiform are the oldest even found in an archeological dig. Unless other examples are eventually uncovered in the future, so far we know that the educated and cultured Enheduanna didn't seem to care to write about love or longing between human beings but rather expressed loving adoration for a warrior goddess who smote her enemies mercilessly, her verses as viscerally detailed and descriptive of combat as any great epic from the ancient world. Put quite simply, the beauty of the human body was glorified in the ancient world. Just as the hero Gilgamesh was larger than life, ancient Assyrian and Babylonian statuary was massive and defined a warlike and militaristic society. The well designed, hanging gardens of Babylon and massive ziggurats defined heaven on Earth, while the deeds of gods, kings and conquerors defined the price that was necessary to pay for living in such a heavenly kingdom- comfort and civilization came with a cost, and that cost was to be paid with the blood of those who were willing to defend civilization. Thus battle was an honored event. The exploits and battle scenes of victorious kings such as Nebuchadrezzar and Ashurbanipal were often accompanied with the depiction of prisoners tied and cowering as they gaze in horror upon the heads of their comrades hanging in trees. 

                          The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, artwork approximately 640 BC  British Museum

In ancient Egyptian statuary, gods as well as great kings and Pharaohs were immortalized with gigantic likenesses of themselves in tombs and in temples as well as in wall carvings. In Egyptian painting we see the mighty Pharaohs time and again crushing their enemies in battle, such as the great Ramses II defeating the Nubians or riding his war chariot over the bodies of the slain Hittites as he secures his victory at the battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC, one the great battles of the ancient world. He is depicted as victorious at Kadesh in paintings, even though he almost lost this battle. A grandson of his namesake (Ramses III) decorated his temple at Medinet Habu with depictions of his victory over the invading Sea Peoples. We become certain of the Egyptian victory which took place in the delta of the Nile, as Egyptian soldiers slay the armored foe in their boats while many more drown, which is a historically accurate depiction of the event- the Egyptian forces surprised the invading fleet as they emerged from the weeds and the rushes that concealed them. We also get an idea of the arms, armor and costumes of the day, as well as a taste of the ferocity of the battle itself as well as its aftermath which is what informs us of such events. The battle that saved Egypt from annihilation, along with the accompanying land battle victory at Djahy (1177 BC?) was remembered and Ramses III, grandson of the great Ramses II, saw to it that he would live forever as well. Pharaohs were bigger than life and all powerful, receiving the obeisance of their defeated foes who, if they were fortunate, were taken as prisoners unlike so many less fortunate of their comrades who faced a certain, horrible death. In a sense, great Pharaohs and victorious generals achieved the level of gods and otherworldly beings through their deeds and the artwork they commissioned. Some of this art might be self indulging ego for sure, but some of it may be actually history. 

                                    The victorious Pharaoh Thutmose  III at Megiddo, 1457 BC

                          Ramses III defeats the Sea Peoples at the battle of the Delta, 1175 BC

Indian artists created sculpture and carvings depicting great battles from their many stories as written in their epic books such as the Mahabharata or the Ramayana. Great heroes and champions do battle with demons or enemy armies that are comprised of a host of beings, demons, apsaras (muses) dwarfs and giants. Great muscular warriors wield a host of weapons including a massive mace held with two hands that is capable of smashing the head of an enemy or his horse. In a wall frieze at the temple of Mahalbalipurnam in Tamil Nadu, southern India, the goddess Durga leads her army to victory over the forces of the evil buffalo demon Mahishasura. In the lower foreground one of her female warriors crouches and slays a demon in a pose reminiscent of Greek or Roman sculpture. There are striking similarities to the positioning of warriors in Indian sculpture to Greco-Roman art, glorifying the realm of the all conquering hero, limbs and muscle straining to achieve the vanquishing of an enemy in the midst of battle. A number of these Indian heroes and goddesses depicted in art are female. In Greek and Roman art the Amazon warriors are depicted as brave and glorious, with great beauty and strength but are considered as foreigners and outsiders in Greco Roman thought and gender roles. In India however, though a patriarchal society for millennia, the power of the feminine is evident as native Indian warrior women seem as natural to the military life as any soldier not only in art but in social life, at least in the genre of warfare and military prowess. Indian spirituality refers to Shakti, the creative power of the feminine which is considered the original power in the universe. Both male and female warriors stand side by side in these representations of Indian art, whether depicting an actual battle or a cosmic war between the forces of the gods in the universe. The goddess Kali, the primordial dark force of the universe, is terrible on the field of battle, extracting terrible revenge against evil entities who litter the plain in heaps with their decapitated bodies. 

Durga defeats the forces of the evil buffalo god  

From the temple at Mahalbalipurnam, Tamil Nadu  725 AD

Female warriors, Uttar Pradesh  Gupta era 5th century AD  

In ancient Greek and Roman civilization the human being was viewed as the epicenter of the cosmos, and their gods were depicted as glorious, muscular humans. In recreations of battle scenes artists created masterpieces through their talented hands, as warriors and champions were depicted in a sweeping battle scene in which all the aspects of war came alive, albeit in a glorified format. It was the desire of ancient artists to make war seem beautiful, mostly however sans the gore and the bloody negative aspects of ancient warfare as we witness in Assyrian or Egyptian art. Warriors slay or are slain but often without the bloody reality of the experience of actual combat. Perhaps this was because warfare was common in ancient times and those who went to war were considered as gods themselves, fighting to protect their family and their kingdom. War was considered an honorable profession whereby an individual can attain glory through a thousand opportunities that might come about as a battle unfolds, as the warrior might realize his destiny. The famous Amazonomachy or the Giganomachy (wars of the titans and giants) that adorned the Parthenon or various palaces reveal a battle where warriors slay or are slain- swords strike and kill, spears impale and the dead and the dying litter the ground, but the depiction is beautiful enough so as not to offend sensibilities or cause the onlooker to revolt in horror. Indeed, even death is glorified in these depictions of art, and there is always plenty of it. However, death is rendered beautiful as once living and active human figures are silenced forever, their taught bodies lying prone or lie piled in heaps in eternal embrace upon the battlefield., their broken weapons about them. Greco-Roman art is action packed for sure, but is rendered beautiful through the imitation of the beauty of the human figure. So popular was the battle motif that Roman nobles contracted artists to create sarchophagai, carved stone coffins if you will, for the purpose of burial decorated with some mythological battle scene between Greek heroes and Amazons, or with fantastic creatures such as the gorgons or the half human/half beast centaurs, engaged in combat with some great hero. The chaos of battle was a popular theme for the final resting place of many a noble and emperor. The Greco-Roman aesthetic set the standard for art for millennia to follow. Battle, in reality a terrible and gory experience rendered beautiful and glorious by the hands of ancient artists, was something noble to honor and hold in high esteem and meant to inspire the young and future generations to manifest bravery and prowess in war and to be an expression of that society condoning such virtues, even if the art that represents this longing is somewhat over stylistic and idealized. 

                       Seal from a grave in Mycenae Greece, two warriors in combat 16th century BC

Gigantomachy, war of gods & giants 525 BC  Delphi Greece 

                                Greek vase painting, hoplites in combat 600 BC    Louvre Museum, Paris

Such idealized and glorified art which Winckelman described as "noble simplicity and calm grandeur" might have been forgotten but in reality, it always makes a comeback and an appearance in one form or another. Johann Joachim Winckelman simply insisted on its preservation and in so doing cemented the genre of idealized, heroic art in the minds of art lovers for centuries to come. The multitude of artists and the public answered the call with enthusiasm, all the way down the ages to the era of modern art in such anti war masterpieces as Goya's 'The Third of May' or Pablo Picasso's 'Guernica', which use the passion of emotional human figures to express the reality of terrible circumstances. Lest we forget, poster art of the 60's and 70's saw rock musicians depicted as near ancient heroic figures armed with guitars or drumsticks, assisting in creating musical legends. Art reflects life and the ideas of the living. All art, be it figurative art, sculpture, music, literature and dance reflect the souls of individuals and the effects of either joy or trauma upon them. Facing joy and trauma depicted as a champion assists in creating and maintaining the image of such a legend, and insuring immortality forever. Mythological figures and heroes are meant to be larger than life, and they inspire us to imitate them, transforming an otherwise uneventful life to one of meaning. This is the power of mythology and the recounting of legends, through the eye of the artist, which in the past was often glorified by the words of bards and the pens of classical authors. 

Battle Of San Romano  Paolo Uccello Approx. 1438  Uffizi Gallery  Florence Italy

Roman sarchophagus, 2nd century AD    Royal Ontario Art Museum

The Sabine Women  Jaques Louis David, 1799   Louvre Paris

Ancient and Classical art has stimulated, inspired and influenced my creations of storybook videos, which are expressions of ancient mythologies. Working with photographers, models, actors and actresses, I seek to recreate scenes which augment the recitation which recounts the tale in ancient bardic style. Of course, there is traditional music and sound effects as an added embellishment.

Links to my audio and video recordings as well as writings 

can be found on my website: www.echoesofantiquity.net  

Images from the Echoes Of Antiquity production The Fall Of Troy

Battle between Greeks, Amazons & Aethiopians

Battle scene from Portals Of Eternity

Copyright 2023, Ismail Butera



For further reading into this fascinating subject,
check out this article from the Los Angeles Times by Reed Johnson:
'War In All Its Awful Beauty'

https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-apr-20-ca-johnson20-story.html

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A Vedic Hymn To The Earth

 

O Earth, my Mother

Set thou me happily in a place secure

Of one accord with Heaven, O Sage

Set me in glory and in wealth. 

The Prithvi Sutka is a hymn found in the Atharva Veda, one of the four Vedas which are at the very foundation of Sanatan Dharma, a spiritual tradition native to India known to the world as Hinduism. In the Vedas are an established, codified compilation of beliefs, practices, rituals and spiritual conclusions which, along with such ancient texts as the Upanishads and Baghavad Gita, are classed as among the great books of India in turn, among the great religious scriptures of humanity. Originally composed and handed down orally, the Vedas were written down early as 1200-900 BC. The Vedas explain nearly everything about this life and the cosmos. They contain many Suktas, or hymns, and many of them are extremely beautiful. 

The Prithvi Sukta is a salutation to Mother Earth, the goddess Prithvi herself, acknowledging her beauty in nature and her pertinence and importance to humanity and all creatures. Such a Sukta surely inspired many gurus and rishis who saw themselves as caretakers of the Earth and established ashrams to take care of the land and its inhabitants be they human, animal, bird, reptile or insect. Compassion for humans develops out of a respect for the land, nature and our surroundings, which is a god like quality inherent in all human beings. Perhaps it were such verses that inspired the likes of the emperor Ashoka who lived from 304-232 BC. He passed laws restricting the killing of animals and established ashrams that acted as clinics to assist wounded or sick animals. He established work teams that took care of the land and the rivers, planting banyan trees and mango groves and constructing nature conscience rest houses for travelers along the roads. It should not be so surprising that Ashoka banned the death penalty for criminals. Rehabilitation was a goal far more productive than capital punishment. Reverence for the land yields reverence for fellow human beings.

What we in the West with our legacy of the Abrahamic and Persian/Zoroastrian linear time concept (a beginning, middle and an end) what we tend to refer to as 'eastern' religion encourages a mindset that reflects the cyclical. For the followers of the Dharmic/Hindu paths, Buddhism, the native American and African tribal religions or the Polynesians of the pacific, humanity cannot perform something bad or distasteful in this life cycle and perhaps pray for forgiveness based on some good deed one has done while present in this lifetime. A cyclical-inspired mindset is expected to understand that one lifetime of seventy, eighty or ninety years is not the end, but just another step in the long road to perfection, as some might label as nirvana. The Abrahamic religions and Zoroastrianism speak of the expiation of sins based on a good deed or act, as the God of the universe is all seeing and can forgive our sometimes reckless acts. Yet, when one understands our existence as part of a great spiral, we are expected as imperfect beings to falter. We have many lifetimes to make up for our carelessness in the next life, and the next, thereafter and so on. All of this mention of cyclical time and the great spiral of existence leads us to ponder why was it that the followers of Sanatan Dharma/Hinduism, Buddhism and the world's traditional folk religions have developed such reverence for all living creatures, developing whole texts dedicated to nature? Native American belief systems acknowledge a great spirit but also think of animals, birds and even insects as brothers and members of a single family, all worshiping and praising the source of life, the Great Spirit which among the civilizations of the Maya, Aztecs and the Inca was manifested as the Sun. People living in these and other nature-religion societies hunted animals for food but did not over hunt them, which logically would be a means to preserve food for the future. This is not meant to insinuate that Native American societies were peaceful or when they became powerful kingdoms were compassionate, in fact their organized and codified religions demanded human sacrifice. But gluttony wasn't really a feature of their cultures and to a large extent used of the natural environment only what they required. While these more advanced and cultured societies became empires and surely burned down forests and cleared the land, as in the case of the Maya, in some instances so effectively that they destroyed the environment and had to vacate the land they were living on, there were native Shamans among them who warned about the destruction of 'mother' Earth, referred to among the Quechua of the Andes as 'Pacha Mama'. The followers of the various spiritual practices who adhere to this cyclical mindset think of humans as not above the Earth, but as a part of it. We are not above life, we are part of the very life cycle itself. We are the rain and the rain is us, as is the Earth.

The same can be said for the followers of India's Dharmic path who, many millennia before, already wrote treatises about the need to preserve the Earth and the forests, the trees and all living things, as we witness when reading and studying this Prithvi Sukta and a host of other texts written by rishis of the past dealing with the importance of respecting nature. Even a mountain is considered as a living being, as are the rivers and the streams, the fields and the waterfalls, in fact all of nature. Think of the Ganges and why millions flock to it to bathe along its banks, ignoring the inconvenience of the crowds. It is an ancient spiritual belief to be one with nature, and one can say this is a universal belief, for even Zoroaster contemplated whilst alone in nature, Jesus and John the Baptist frequented the wilderness, Mohammed contemplated divinity whilst within a cave, all of them doing exactly what gurus and rishis have done in India for thousands of years. If being alone in nature gives us peace and helps us attain salvation and understanding then it might do us well to imitate the sages of India and experience for ourselves what nature can do for us, how it might heal us or bring us closer to understanding.  It is said that Siddartha whom we would come to know of as Gautama Buddha, became so lost in meditation that the tree under which he sat grew branches that entwined and twisted themselves around him. In the Dharmic tradition the song of a bird might seem as a revelation, the appearance of a brightly colored insect a means for conveying a teaching, the howl of a dog or wolf at night an echo of a song in the heavens, the branches of that tree ensnaring Siddhartha perhaps equivalent to the arms of the Divine being embracing the devotee. Nothing is sure, but we all will likely agree today that caring for our world is like caring for ourselves...as far as we know, it's our home while we dally here in this life cycle, in this dimension. Therefore allow me to give a salutation, a Pranam if you will,  to the ancient authors of the Prithvi Sukta, who remind us eternally of the responsibility of caring for our home, our cradle, and our mother, the Earth itself.

This translation is from the site of Swaha/Yoga Ecology. 

https://ecology.yoga/2023/05/22/ancient-wisdom-prithvi-sukta-hymn-to-the-earth-atharva-veda/

The Mysterious Mayan Lady Of The Rock

On a recent trip to Belize in Central America, I became fascinated with a tale associated with the ruins of the ancient Mayan site known as Xunantunich. Upon arrival at any of the Mayan sites one is amazed at the temples and buildings archeologists have so far uncovered. Alongside of them is the overgrowth of soil and trees that have covered these ruins for centuries, many of then excavated only since the late 19th century and many more in the past few decades. The invention of the airplane allowed a view from the sky as pilots looked down and saw the tops of structures seemingly peeking out from the tree tops. More recently, infrared technology has allowed archeologists to realize that there are thousands of sites waiting to be yet uncovered, indicating the regions of Central America where the ancient Maya flourished was a thriving region of high culture, a larger conglomerate of civilization than we previously thought, similar to the metropolitan centers of trade and commerce such as the Fertile Crescent or the Indus Valley. In other words, we are in the mere beginner's stage of uncovering the history of the Maya. 

As you gaze around in awe of the edifices, or try and climb the stairways to the top of a temple to look upon the surrounding countryside one is made aware of an astonishing fact; there are many tree topped hills in the immediate flat landscape. An archeologist who accompanied my tour group pointed out an important fact- "do you see hills in this flat terrain? Every hill you see is a mound concealing yet another structure, another temple or ball court theater waiting to be uncovered." We've a long way to go.

Xunantunich, meaning 'Lady Of The Rock' is so named for a local phenomenon. In the 19th century archeologists and travelers heard tales from the locals of a white, ghostly, spirit like entity dressed like a Mayan princess who appears from time to time in the area of these ruins. Many accounts claim that this apparition is seen climbing the stairs of the great temple making her way to the top as the ancient Mayans did, step by step, sometimes on her knees as this temple was a religious site dedicated to the gods where human sacrifice was performed to appease their thirst for blood, that life force that allowed the Sun to shine so as to create another day which was and still is counted by the time keepers, the shamans who are entrusted with the recording of days, the burden of time which humanity must maintain lest the universe and all that is in it collapses into nothingness. For it is said that when the last time keeper dies and there are no more appointed heirs for this important position, all creation will cease to be, including the gods themselves. Time for the Maya is what kept the universal balance for humanity. The gods, the creatures of the Earth, all the planets and the heavenly bodies cannot exist without them, thus are humans entrusted with the important recording of the days, years, groups of years called khatuns, muliplied and divided, added, subtracted, fractioned and further subdivided as Mayan cosmology, astrology and mathematics demonstrate how obsessed they the Maya were with numbers and days. Historian Michael Wood calls this great and holy responsibility entrusted to mankind 'The Burden Of Time'.

After ascending the many steps to the upper level of the temple- I went up on my knees, to be told by the guide that this was how the Maya climbed the structure, symbolic of ascending to the heavens, an experience which was followed  by conveniently modern made stairways that lead to the top of the great temple of Xunantunich, one can view the great expanse below, once many elegantly painted structures but now are individual ruins surrounded by tropical trees that are the domain of beautifully colored birds who resound a symphonic carcophony of screeches and hoots, spider monkeys who play in the canopy, iguana lizards and the curious coati, a small raccoon like creature that seems adorable and cuddly yet has a reputation among the locals as a dangerous pest with a very mean disposition. Looking around, imagining the great plaza below filled with crowds praying and appealing to the gods, with drummers and musicians playing music and shamans chanting hymns while the scent and smoke of incense permeated the air, one can somewhat know and feel what the person chosen for the honor of sacrifice might have experienced. It is beautiful and terrifying all at the same time, this meeting place of humanity and divinity, Earth and sky, time and non existence. The Maya believed in reincarnation so death was for them but a gateway to rebirth, and the sacrificial offering was seen as a brave and wonderful being who would give their life so that other might live, so that the Sun would illuminate the world so that humans might pursue the illumination of the mind. Thus the Maya created art and a form of writing with which they created books for learning and recording knowledge. Their mathematicians discovered the numeral zero on their own, independent of the old world. Like that deceptive creature the coati who seems adorably cuddly and cute yet is in reality fierce and cruel, so did the Maya view our very existence. After washing, perfuming and decorating the naked body of a human sacrificial offering, painting emblems and markings upon their skin, he or she was made to lay back upon a stone and a priest, using a sharp obsidian blade, would cut out the heart of the offering, holding it up to the heavens while it was still beating and pumping blood. The Mayan demonstrate a reality about being human; that we are capable of artistic refinement and intellectual illumination while at the same time maintaining horrific practices and terrible customs based on supposed beliefs about our state of existence. The Greek philosopher Thucydides wrote that war is natural to humanity and without it we cannot advance technologically or spiritually. The Maya, who like the Greeks organized themselves into city states and were constantly engaged in war, seem to have agreed with what many would feel is a rather pessimistic theory. Yet as much as we might protest, our life experiences inform us of the reality of being, and throughout our history into our current era we are plagued by this dual dichotomy. The Maya, like the Olmecs, Incas, the Moche and the Aztecs were no different in their world views, and in fact faced this problem honestly. 

Descending from the great temple at Xunantunich was easier than going up, thanks to well constructed wooden staircase with a banister, a benefit Maya devotees did not have. One can visit lesser, smaller structures on the site which at one time graced the plaza which constituted the city square. There is one such structure, a not so high but nonetheless impressive edifice that was excavated only recently. It was explained that this newly excavated structure is actually a tomb in which a Mayan princess was buried, her sarcophagic-like grave can be viewed set and built into the very front of the pyramid like building. On either side of the grave are exhibited 'stelae' or carvings with Mayan writing, indicating the identity of the inhabitant of the tomb, a woman of noble lineage who was honored by her family and people. Considering the Maya were a patriarchal society who, like the ancient Greeks and the Romans, thought matters of state should be handled by men, they did occasionally honor women and such excavations as this one are shedding new light on just how the Mayan viewed women during their early period or the classical era. We cannot surmise fully the conditions or habits of any civilization based on what was so far excavated when we really don't know fully the role of gender in any civilization. The discovery of such tombs tells us a little more about societies of the past. Perhaps we have been able to decipher the old world a bit more because of proximity and closer contact, as this old world was where European, Asian and African history was made and these cultures all had some degree of contact with one another. But the Americas are a different story, with the sudden demise of Native civilizations and the decimation of whole populations due to disease and a merciless, prejudiced and bloody conquest. Conquerors have often sen themselves as superior, and it always was that the conqueror wrote the history books, because the vanquished like the dead cannot speak. The Europeans were not alone in this, as Native empires also had their share of conquering or exterminating their neighbors. With the calming of the the passion of the warlike and greedy victor eventually comes illumination and the seeking of knowledge, and this is where we are today. The discovery of the tomb of this Mayan princess at Xunantunich is but one more stepping stone to getting to understand this ancient civilization.

Along with art, architecture and the discovery and analysis of the books and the literature of a long gone civilization, we should not ignore folk tales and legends. In fact it were folk tales, legends and mythologies that spurred the imaginations of early explorers and historians. Heinrich Schleimann, a 19th century German businessman was intrigued by the stories of ancient Troy and set out to investigate and prove there was some truth to these tales. By doing so he in essence created the science of archeology. Just as he was intrigued by the stories of Troy, so we should not ignore the tales recounted by any people. Perhaps the phenomenon of the ghostly Maid Of The Rock is actually an indication that there is a tomb on the site. The Maya may have forgotten the actual location of her tomb or they were sworn to secrecy when the Spaniards came looking for gold so as to protect it. Yet the legend of the maid has remained, in the form of a ghost that quite a few people have supposedly seen or at least believe in. The location of the tomb and the identity of the individual has been lost but some important figure inspired the tale for sure. Or, the apparition may represent some other woman in yet unknown folklore of the Maya. We cannot be sure, but as new discoveries emerge explanations change or grow and we are understanding our past in a perpetually clearer light. Such is the importance of folk tales and mythology in trying to understand and unravel the lost history of the past. Many of the locals still maintain the apparition of the lady of the rock is real, and can now proudly point to the tomb that was uncovered by archeologists as being the place where she has been sleeping now for the past many centuries, here under the shadow of the great temple of Xunantunich.

Oh lady, lady, what is thy name?
Princess of beauty and splendor, queen of fame
Beauty and grace are how ye art described
For us the living, faith in the supernatural is what is prescribed
I know not who ye are, or why this place ye haunt at night
Climbing the temple stairs drifting, transparently
Radiant thou art in the shimmering Moon light
Do ye return to the place of thy death
That cold slab of stone 'pon high?
Where so many innocents were taken and forced to lie
Can you recall the temple priest with obsidian knife in hand?
And from that spot ye entered the realm of death in this land
Or were you a noble queen who spoke out against the ritual deed?
Perhaps ye were silenced by envious men, in their power and greed
So many possibilities, theories and suppositions
Perhaps we'll never know the truth
For thee dear lady we give our salute, for we know you died in youth
Was your tomb the gift of a lover, a husband honoring his loss
Every evening he lay down, sleepless nights
On his cot did he turn and toss
Bemoaning thy death and your parting from this earthly realm, here
For no promise of resurrection or rebirth, can satisfy that lonely fear
So I will travel once again to the climb the temple on high
And perchance you will grace my presence with an appearance...
That I too might know who ye are, and why

Ismail Butera, copyright 2023 

Images: 
Mayan queen from the film Apocalypto
The temple at Xunantunich
Grave shrine of the Lady Of The Rock
Modern Mayan member of reenactment troupe, Cozumel