The Roots Of Roman Stamina: The Struggle With The Samnites

 

Painted Frieze Of Samnite warriors, 4th Cent. BC

Rome's rise to power and empire is a story that spans several centuries. She was imperialism par excellence, eventually expanding her dominion over at first the Mediterranean and then western and eastern Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East. While the well organized Roman armies were at times virtually invincible, they also faced some defeats. What is remarkable about the Roman military is how they would suffer a reversal then learn from it, adapt and adopt accordingly, and go on to achieve victory and establish a stability few empires have attained in history. When Rome was in danger of foreign invasion on Italian soil by the capable military commander Pyrhus, the king of Epirus, they suffered several defeats at the hands of this military strategist but were able to hold their own, inflicting so many losses on their adversary at the battle of Beneventum in 275 BC that the great king reputedly exclaimed "one more such victory and I am lost", giving rise to the expression 'Pyrrhic Victory'. When Hannibal of Carthage invaded the Italian peninsula by way of the Alps, bringing his army with him in a daring move that caught the Romans by surprise, he defeated them in several battles, most notably the battle of Cannae in 216 BC in which he devastated the Roman army opposing him. Livy claims that Roman losses were more than half their force, some 67,000 men. This battle held the reputation of being Rome's darkest hour. Hannibal used an encircling tactic still studied to this day in military schools around the world in which he trapped the legions who were crammed so close together they could not use their swords effectively and were indiscriminately slaughtered. Members of Rome's highest and most noble families died in the conflict, and it is said there was not a Roman family who did not mourn the loss of a son, father or brother. Hannibal drove fear into the hearts of the peoples of the Italian countryside. Though he defeated the legions on the battlefield, Hannibal had no siege engines and could not breach the walls of Rome, thus depriving the great general of his prize. Concerned about his narrow supply lines which the Romans constantly harassed he was forced to retreat back to North Africa where he would await Roman vengeance, which would arrive in the form of a general named Scipio, who studied Hannibal's tactics and turned these on the Carthaginian, decisively defeating the seemingly invincible one at the battle of Zama in 202 BC. For this victory Scipio was awarded the title 'Conqueror of Africa', thus he would be known to history as Scipio Africanus. 

Battle Of Zama  Cornelius Cort, 16th Cent. 

Two powerful foreign entities commanded by two of ancient history's most brilliant generals invaded Italy and sought to subdue the Romans, but were themselves defeated. Rome went on to conquer and claim Carthage and northern Africa, then continued their move east into the Balkans fully subduing Illyria, Macedonia, Thrace and the Grecian states. The formerly harassed Romans were now the harassing entity in the Mediterranean, adding kingdom after kingdom to their now growing imperial realm. 

The orderly Roman legions, though successful time and again, would face danger and defeat in the course of their empirical endeavors. The slave revolt of Spartacus in the 1st century BC caused Rome as much worry as did Hannibal's invasion, with whole bands of escaped, wild gladiators terrorizing the countryside. This slave army defeated several Roman legions but met their match in a battle with the general Crassus who, like his predecessors, studied the defeats and turned these tactics on his foes, finally defeating the slave army of Spartacus in 71 AD in the region of present day Calabria in Italy's south. After the battle, some 6,000 of the captured slaves and gladiators were crucified as a reminder to those who would dare to challenge the power of Rome. This revolt was a cause for worry, but also was a cause for the Romans to demonstrate to history their uncanny ability to persevere. We might wish to add to the list of Roman woes the invasion of Germany in 9 AD where the legions were defeated and virtually annihilated in the Teutoburg Forest. The Romans were masters of battle on an open field but were unaccustomed to fighting in the woods, where their commanders could not effectively command their troops. However, in time the conquerors would learn the weaknesses of their enemies and could eventually defeat them. One interesting mention in the annals is the use of long and heavy swords by the Germanic tribes which could split a man in two. The Germanic weapons were quite the opposite of the Roman weapon of choice, the short hispanic gladius, which was used for close in fighting. The Romans learned to deal with the vicious blows of the heavy swords and axes of their barbarian foes- the legionnaire would block the heavy weapon with his 'scutum' shield and would stab at the exposed underbelly of the enemy warrior as he raised his heavy weapon, which sometimes required the use of two hands, to deliver the death blow. Moving as a unit, the Roman lines would cut their way through the enemy, slicing torsos along the way and effectively disarming the wielders of those terrible, heavy weapons. In the wars against the Persian empire, Rome would face defeat again in confronting the horse mounted cavalry of the Parthians and Sassanians who were covered in weighty chain mail literally from 'head to hoof' yet they too could achieve victory after eventually studying Persian tactics and turning them around.

What we could surmise from Roman military history is that this brilliant military war machine learned from mistakes and would eventually emerge more powerful than before. It is amazing how the Roman legions could adapt tactics and techniques so rapidly and achieve the success that made the Roman empire the all powerful entity it was, lasting in the west until the 5th century AD and in the east in the form of Byzantium until the mid 15th century. The walls of the eastern Roman capital city of Constantinople were never breached except when Crusaders stormed the walls in 1204 and when the Ottomans under Mehmet The Conqueror took the city in 1453. We might also wish to mention that terrible weapon used to turn ships to cinders, known as 'Greek Fire', which turned back navies intent on conquest. In short, the legacy of the civilization of Rome was one of inventiveness and flexibility which gave them mastery of a portion of the then known world for more than a millennium. 

Silver Embossed Side Of A Chariot, Etruscan 6th Cent BC

We should ask the question then as to why these Romans were so successful time and again against so many obstacles and odds? Every defeat was turned into a vengeance that saw either the complete decimation of their foes as in the destruction of Carthage, or in the very least, their uncanny ability to resist dangerous foes such as the Germanic tribes or the equally flexible and organized Persians. I believe the answer lies in the early history and nature of ancient Italy. The city of Rome was built by the tribe known as the Latini, one of many tribes who lived in the peninsula in classical era. These various tribes were warlike and feuded constantly with one another, all in the shadow of the great Etruscan civilization in the north and the colonizing Greeks who settled in Sicily and southern Italy, founding new cities so as to exploit the volcanic earth for the production of excellent wheat, olives, grapes and the pasturing of cattle and sheep, to feed their city states back in Greece proper. There were other migrants to Italy at the time from the Balkans and people who came down from the Alps. This was a chaotic time that saw disparate tribes and clans fighting with one another for control of fertile valleys and plains amid mountainous terrain. Loins brought forth mouths to feed and land was needed to provide food for these mouths, hence the reason for the clash of tribe and clan so prominent in ancient society and for our purposes, here in crowded Italy. 

  Digital Rendition Of A Typical Samnite Warrior

After the legendary founding of Rome by one Romulus, who killed his brother in a duel and became the first king of the Latium, his city was built upon seven hills in the Alba Longa region and was named for him. Seeking to annex territory, the Latini went to war with their neighbors or with the Greek colonizers and established their presence in central Italy. They conquered the Umbrians and the Sabines, for whom a great story unfolded which was noted in several Renaissance paintings, of how they raped the women, thus incorporating them into the future Roman nation. Long before Rome expanded to become the imperial empire it did on foreign soil, she attacked and conquered her neighbors for a variety of reasons. Add to this alliances made or broken with the Greek colonists, the Etruscans and others and we understand the necessity to be disciplined and organized, and to be stoic enough to accept defeat and loss. It was this time in Italy's early chaotic history that the great epics that became the later literature of classical Rome were based on, such as the migrations and doings of the Trojan Aeneas and the warrior maiden Camilla of the Volsci. 

Samnite Depiction Of Warriors Engaged In Mutual Combat, 4th Cent. BC

While the brilliant civilization of the mysterious Etruscans reigned in Italy's north, creating excellent art and painting depicting the lives of a highly sophisticated populace enamored with pleasure, other tribal kingdoms stood in stark contrast. Perhaps early Rome's greatest challenge came from a tribe known as the Samnites. These were a powerful tribe who inhabited the inner, mountainous region of south central Italy. They were warlike and formidable and attained a reputation of ferocity. For entertainment they pit warriors against one another in  duels to the death, which the Romans would adopt as their own public entertainment and raise the practice of the gladiator to a spectacle in the coliseum. Even the Greeks thought it wise to not deal with these fierce people, preferring trade and exchange over confrontation. These were people who excelled in the making of swords, armor and shields, their art portraying the life of the warrior and the hero. These were a people enraptured not by beauty and art but were rather in love with martial prowess, like the Spartans, Thracians and Illyrians across the Adriatic in the Balkans. The Romans would challenge this entity but would learn that the price for expansion could be costly against such a determined and fierce foe in a series of wars, three to be exact,  that lasted from 343 BC to 290 BC. 

The Samnites invaded and defeated the settlement of Capua, a rich city on the Campanian plain between Rome and the Greek city of Neapolis. The Capuans were descended from the Samnites. Having established their own nation, they sought an alliance with the Romans and placed themselves under Roman rule so as to attain protection from the Samnites. Thus the first of three wars between Rome and the Samnites evolved. Later Roman historians portrayed the Roman intervention as a noble cause to assist the underdog as it were, but it is obvious that the Latins were seeking power and the annexing of territory. The Romans were at first successful against the Samnites, but in a series of three wars they learned just how formidable their foes could be. At Caudine Forks an entire Roman army became trapped between two hills surrounded by the Samnites who could have easily destroyed them. However, they thought it prudish to let the Latins go so as to attain a treaty. The Samnites would later regret this decision as war resumed in earnest. The clever Samnites then made alliances with the Etruscans, with Epirus across the Adriatic and with various Gallic tribesmen expressing the idea that Rome was dangerous and had to be stopped. The three Samnite wars were bloody and cruel, as the Etruscan and later Roman art work and literature created for and about these series of events viscerally depicts. The Romans attained some notable victories but at times also were defeated by the fierce mountain people. Finally, after this series of wars which saw Rome dominate Italy and subdue those neighbors who sided against her, Pyrrhus the king of Epirus invaded Italy and the Samnites tried once more to resist the Romans by allying themselves with the general. Pyrrhus was however defeated and left Italy, thereby ensuring the fate of the Samnites and all other Italian kingdoms and nations. 

The Ferocity Of Ancient War: Etruscan Urn Depicting Furious Combat Between Two Warriors
Who Simultaneously Slay Each Other

The Romans displayed a genius for incorporating their conquered foes which would become a hallmark of Roman conquest and rule. The subject peoples were given the right to become citizens of the state, joining their conquerors as fellow Romans provided their loyalty would be assured. Even the Sabines, whom the Romans punished with a vengeance- raping their women and taking their children as slaves for siding with the Samnites, were eventually incorporated. Rome emerged from these encounters the victor and soon, all Italy was secured. The Samnites, the Capuans and the Umbrians, the Volsci, the Etruscans were all were absorbed in the new paradigm, and their individual independence ended. Speakers of Greek who lived along the coast eventually became speakers of Latin, though Greek would remain as the language of education. The art of the former nations would inspire and inform Roman culture, who in turn would apply their expertise in the establishment of an empire that dwarfed any before them. Rome would go on to conquer and fight wars, a powerful military entity in her own right, and while she knew great victories also knew how to overcome defeats, learning from the experience of the Samnite wars for which the Roman soul would forever be indebted. She would face the legions of Hannibal or the cavalry of the Sassanian kings with a professionalism and a sense of purpose backed up by the tales and stories of these early, chaotic days of Italy's distant past, a lost era of what once was and became, due to the genius and perseverance of the stoic Romans. The source for Roman strength, relentless determination and will can be traced back to the wars fought for the dominance of the Italian peninsula against fierce tribal neighbors. These early wars and struggles brought about the creation of what would become the Roman empire. 

Sculptured Head Of An Italic king, 5th Cent. BC

Ismail Butera, 2021

The Inspiration Of Ancient Italy

 

Minerva approaches the Sun god Apollo in his chariot, Chicago Art Museum

We are all familiar with the legacy of the mighty Roman empire, that imperial power which dominated all of southern Europe and much of the western portion of that continent, the Balkans into Dacia, a region that became known as Romania due to massive Roman colonization, as well North Africa and the Middle East up to the borders of the realm of Rome's eventual rival, Persia. This was a civilization that lasted for centuries ruling from a pagan Rome itself in the homeland of the Italian peninsula, then continued in the Christianized form of what was known as Byzantium in the city of Constantine, there on the shores of the Bosphorus, that strait that separates Europe from Asia. Rome is probably the most influential entity in (at least) European and Middle Eastern history. I use 'is' rather than 'was' because her legacy is far too monumental and her impact so profound one cannot dismiss Rome and merely a 'has been' civilization. There are so many aspects of our modern life that have been shaped by the Roman legacy that we cannot ignore her importance in the study of history. Rome was and remains a giant in this regard. 

Like most civilizations and empires, Rome wasn't built in a day, to coin the phrase, but rather developed over many centuries from the common experience of a simple tribe of people who shared a common experience as they migrated south into the Italian peninsula. This rule of rising from humble beginnings to glory applies to many other ancient and medieval peoples who rose to command or influence the lives of multitudes in history- Persians, Ottomans, Aztecs, Moghuls, Arab caliphates, the Dorians and the Aryans, the Hebrews, all at one time obscure groups of wanderers or simple tillers of the soil who rose to fame and prominence by their sheer will to survive or push on, their destiny shaped by the reality of their existence and the shared experiences of the members of their particular tribe as they reacted to sometimes insurmountable odds. The early Romans were no different, as tribes of Indo European speakers moved south into the Italian peninsula in the later Bronze Age, various groups settling in different regions where they began to till the soil, smelt metal and create the beginnings of what would become ancient Italy.

Etruscan sarchophagus, reclining couple

Most of these groups and tribes were speakers of an Indo European language while others were not, such as the Etruscans who created what was the most glorious and advanced culture in ancient Italy, renown for their sophisticated art and highly decorated tombs of  which several have survived. The Etruscan artifacts we have- the frescoes and friezes, the pottery and the household items, the exquisitely carved sarcophagi created to honor their deceased family members reveal a people inclined to a life of pleasure, a civilization that enjoyed music and dance, eating and drinking or simply reclining with one's spouse or spending an afternoon entangled in the arms of a lover. Their metallurgy reached the highest levels of technology and creativity, as reflected in the amazingly excellent condition of the arms, armor and decorated war chariots which have survived the ravages of nature and human alike. We know little about their language or their origins and several theories have been put forth for these people. Some claim they were immigrants from Asia Minor who settled in the region of northern Italy which in time became known as Etruria, or land of the Etruscans. There certainly is the myth of one Aeneas, who fled Troy upon the sacking of that city by the Achaean Greeks. However, some linguists claim that the Trojans were themselves an Indo European people with ties to the Thracians of the Balkans, also an Indo European folk. There is a theory that the Etruscans were related to the Armenians, but again, this language like Hittite belongs to the Indo European family group. The ancient pre Aryan Pelasgians, supposed ancestors of the later Greeks and Balkan peoples such as the Illyrians, both of whom spoke Indo European, are another group mentioned as possibility, as well as other nations who may have been from the Levant, indicating a proto Semitic/Canaanite origin. But so far, only the proposing of theories continues to challenge the most probable fact- the Etruscans were an ancient aboriginal people, like the Sicani of Sicily, who inhabited the land long before the coming of the speakers of Aryan languages and created an already high established culture. The Roman writer Livy attempted to link the Etruscans with Alpine peoples, as ancient authors were well experienced with creating narratives that may have had little to do with reality but more with impressing the emperor or that sense of moral compass that was required to unify the empire. Nobody can be sure just who these mysterious people were or what their language was like, but the common consensus is that they were not speakers of an Aryan tongue. 

Etruscan frieze depicting dancing couple

Well preserved and finely wrought Etruscan armor, 6th century BC

The original tribe of those who would go on to create Rome were known as the Latini, from which we get the name of their language, Latin. They settled in the hills where Rome has been located for millennia. There were other tribes living in the peninsula as well. Just as the Greek city states would grow larger in population over time and cause them to compete for farming and herding land, so did these tribes in Italy begin to compete and feud with each other as well. The Greek city states in fact were forced to seek new land to feed their small cities, so they explored and eventually colonized the coasts of southern Italy and Sicily, pushing back the native inhabitants and settling along the coast to support Greek city state maritime trade, ignoring the then semi barbaric peoples of the interior. The Greek colonists traded with these peoples and maintained a healthy relationship with the highly civilized Etruscans, and we can see the influence of each culture upon the other in the surviving artifacts. Though the colonization process took some time, the Greeks were well established in southern Italy and Sicily by the 6th century BC. The new cities they developed in 'Magna Graecia' such as Naples; Neapolis is Greek for 'new city', as well as in those impressive urban centers in Sicily such as Syracuse and Akragas (Agrigento) all were busy trading with the city states of the Greek mainland and as a result made alliances with these cities. As the city states competed for the abundance of the southern Italian land, which was fertile and volcanic and produced the excellent wheat which fed Corinth, Sparta and Athens, they naturally went to war with one another. While the Greek city states were engaged in nearly constant warfare for control of the wheat fields and orchards of the south, the Italic peoples in the interior of the peninsula also engaged in war, as the Latium people began to expand. The rise of the Roman empire had begun. 

The Sabine Women, Jaques Louis Davide 1808

The tribe of Latium established a legend which would go on to be the very foundation of Rome's glorious rise, the story of Romulus and Remus, those orphan twins suckled by a she wolf. Their parents are said to have placed them in a basket and sent them to float down the river Tiber, this being an ancient narrative which gave us several tales, among them the story of Moses and the founder of the Akkadian empire, the great Sargon, both of whom were supposedly placed into floating baskets to be left for the gods to decide what their fate. The two brothers, like their ruler predecessors, were always quarreling with one another. The Latium needed to be unified, so hence the legend- Romulus killed his brother in a duel and assumed the throne, thus considered the founder of Rome.

As the population of Latium began to increase, they looked at the lands of their neighbors who were in competition with them, the Umbrians and the powerful Samnites. Early Rome was engaged in a state of constant warfare. They  conquered the tribe of the Sabines, the rape of their women a powerful and compelling tale which inspired famous paintings by such Renaissance and classical artists as Jaques Louis-Davide and Rubens, among others. Eventually, they defeated the warlike Samnites and went on to establish their city on the Tiber, built upon seven hills. After the early Romans established their presence and consolidated their power in central Italy the cultures they conquered or overpowered were absorbed into this new political entity, each of them contributing their share to what would become Roman art, folklore and lifestyle. From the colonized Greek cities the Romans took much indeed, and soon the Romans would challenge the Greek presence and conquer southern Italy and Sicily, fighting wars against such generals as the great Pyrrhus of Epirus and Hannibal of Carthage. In these struggles which at times saw the defeat of the Roman armies by these military geniuses, the Romans patiently swallowed their pride and rallied, learning by mistake and adapting new tactics and strategies. For moral support and spiritual strength they turned to their ancient legends, myths and tales which hearkened back to an earlier time of heroes and champions, just as every other ancient civilization. The stories of a long gone era always inspire us to go ahead and move on amid struggle and travesty, and Roman parents saw to it that their offspring would be the very manifestation of those ancient, unbeatable champions of old. Like the ancient Spartans, Rome would achieve this but on a grander scale, for while Sparta's reputation for war and bravery was as a city state, Rome was destined to conquer the world. 

Etruscan war chariot, 5th century BC  Metropolitan Museum, NY

Heralding back in time to those early years, there were many stories Roman bards could call upon to explain their past. In these ancient myths and legends we read not only about the founding of Rome but also mentions of other elements which contributed to Roman identity. The earliest Latin author, in fact considered the father of Roman literature was Quintus Ennius who lived in the 2nd century BC. The story of Aeneas the Trojan fleeing to Italy after the sacking of his city of Troy gave the Romans a sense of a great and dignified heritage in that they were descended from a race of heroes, as composed by the great poet Virgil in his work the Aeneid. This and other stories seem to suggest migration from Troy or more specifically, other lands, which certainly must have occurred early on in history. Homer's Odyssey was considered an important work, here the Greek hero's name was changed to Ulysses, while all his exploits with the cyclops, the Sirens and the sea monsters of the Straits of Scylla in Sicily were duly noted. As in nearly every culture and civilization, the myths which provided the moral backbone of Roman society with bravery and virtue were laden with stories of events and gender roles that defied the general view of their world. These tales from Roman mythology were formulated based on events that supposedly occurred in this earlier chaotic time, and the peoples and places described within inform us of that time for which we know so little about, a pre history if you will. 

One such story from the Roman epic cycle was the tale of Camilla, made popular by the author Virgil in his Aeneid. Scholars of literature still debate whether the tale was an ancient Italian story or was created by Virgil himself, drawing from earlier Greek stories of the Amazons. What we do know is that many ancient civilizations which were firmly patriarchal in their heyday were entertained by stories from the repertoires of bards told of fierce warrior women who lived in an earlier age. This was somewhat convenient since in Greece, Rome and India these tales were myths and stories to be told but were never meant for the women folk of that society to imitate. Yet, it was the duty of women to nurture the young, their task to instill in their children the values and virtues of bravery and striving to defend the nation and the society from enemies. A strong woman figure reinforced these values in the form of an armored warrior who would gladly face death and even prefer it, to a life of slavery. 

Camilla was said to be the daughter of one Metabus, a king of the Volsci, one of the tribes that lived in the peninsula. He was a victim of the previously mentioned tribal chaos that marked the life of early Italian tribes, as he was overthrown by his rivals and forced to flee, carrying his small daughter Camilla with him. A chase ensued over the hills and through the woods as the rebels wanted the king dead. When the rebels were close behind Metabus tied his daughter to his spear and threw it to the other side of a river gorge, invoking the goddess Diana to care for his daughter and teach her how to survive. Some stories claim that the rebels caught Metabus and killed him, and unsuccessfully searched for Camilla who was now safely across the gorge, having been found by a wild mare who took the babe as her own and nursed her. As a result, Camilla learned to tame and ride horses well and grew into a huntress who knew the woods and the forests, protecting the farms of those she was friends with, very much like the Greek story of Cyrene. Camilla soon rose to become the queen of the Volsci and sought revenge for her father's death. 

Camilla is the source of many epic tales in which she proved her talent with the sword, spear and bow against enemies and competitors. She was considered fleeting of foot, and could run atop wheat fields and never harm the chaff, or skip over water so briskly her feet never became wet. After a career of winning duels and battles against her foes, she would meet the hero Aeneas, who was a migrant seeking a new life in Italy. He himself settled in the land, making alliances and offering his services, fighting with various tribes and clans. Here he met the original inhabitants who are described as fierce fighters, and made an alliance with the Etruscans who had been at war with one King Turnus of the Patulli, an allied tribe of the Volsci. Perhaps seeing their land inundated by these migrant Trojans, Greeks and other peoples, or fearful of being forced out by these populous foreigners; much like the Native Americans in the face of European expansion in the New World...Camilla set out to assist the Patulli against the forces of the Etruscans and their ally, Aeneas. 

In a pitched battle Camilla and her attendant Opis, another fierce warrior woman, slew many Etruscans and Trojans. Unable to slay her in hand to hand combat, as evidenced by her victims who lay now in heaps on the battlefield, an Etruscan warrior named Arruns pulls his powerful bow and lets loose a swift arrow that strikes the Volscian queen in the breast. In some versions of the story Arruns kills her with a spear, but it is clear that she had to be dispatched by a weapon from a distance, for no man will dare approach her and live to tell of the encounter, so effective was her sword or battle ax. The death of Camilla was a theme for several Renaissance artists and her story was quite popular in the later Middle Ages. After she is mortally wounded Camilla lives long enough to tell her beloved attendant Opis who it was who killed her, and swears her to an oath to seek revenge. Camiila witnesses the death of Arruns by the hand of Opis, who cuts off his head and holds it aloft for all to see. The Etruscans, Aeneas and the Trojan allies flee from the field in horror as Camilla nods approvingly to Opis, smiles softly, then closes her eyes and expires. 

Such stories from the pre history of what we know of as ancient civilizations ie: the ancient history for the ancients themselves, reveal much for us to ponder about life before the rise of those civilizations we considered to be part of our own history. These myths and tales reveal to us clues about the early history itself, indicating lifestyle and gender roles that were quite different from the noted civilization itself. mentions of various nations and peoples seem to support the work and findings of historians who themselves date and classify artifacts, with the different styles of art causing us to think about the many migrations that occurred in the most ancient times. Rome inherited the stories and the culture of these early Italic peoples, using Greek methods to discern and define their culture. They did indeed put their own stamp on this new inherited culture and set out to conquer the world. For better or for worse, Rome subdued nations but also was inclusive as they allowed the vanquished to participate in what would collectively become a unified Roman victory. Rome's government became the complete opposite of what the tribes of her pre history experienced, perhaps that experience of the years of chaos informed the Romans of what not to do. For sure, there were many civil wars and rebellions in Rome's history, echoing that ancient chaotic past, yet the restoration of order became the norm for Roman rule. 

Whenever Rome was threatened, such as by Pyrrhus of Epirus or the Carthaginian general Hannibal, or when they engaged in one of the many wars they fought with the empire of Persia, we can rest assured that the bards who accompanied the legions recited such tales of old to inform the legionnaires of what they were fighting for, though most came from every province of the empire. Diverse they were, but united by a dream and vision inspired and influenced by the desire for humanity to establish order amid chaos. It was the tales of that pre historic, ancient era which produced heroes and champions who themselves were examples of order and rule in their time that directed the Romans to create lex, or law and the concept of 'civitas'. Rome ruthlessly conquered but Rome shared and gave, and was perhaps the most influential entity in all human history. 

Ismail Butera, 2021