The Inspiration Of Ancient Italy

 

Minerva approaches the Sun god Apollo in his chariot, Chicago Art Museum

We are all familiar with the legacy of the mighty Roman empire, that imperial power which dominated all of southern Europe and much of the western portion of that continent, the Balkans into Dacia, a region that became known as Romania due to massive Roman colonization, as well North Africa and the Middle East up to the borders of the realm of Rome's eventual rival, Persia. This was a civilization that lasted for centuries ruling from a pagan Rome itself in the homeland of the Italian peninsula, then continued in the Christianized form of what was known as Byzantium in the city of Constantine, there on the shores of the Bosphorus, that strait that separates Europe from Asia. Rome is probably the most influential entity in (at least) European and Middle Eastern history. I use 'is' rather than 'was' because her legacy is far too monumental and her impact so profound one cannot dismiss Rome and merely a 'has been' civilization. There are so many aspects of our modern life that have been shaped by the Roman legacy that we cannot ignore her importance in the study of history. Rome was and remains a giant in this regard. 

Like most civilizations and empires, Rome wasn't built in a day, to coin the phrase, but rather developed over many centuries from the common experience of a simple tribe of people who shared a common experience as they migrated south into the Italian peninsula. This rule of rising from humble beginnings to glory applies to many other ancient and medieval peoples who rose to command or influence the lives of multitudes in history- Persians, Ottomans, Aztecs, Moghuls, Arab caliphates, the Dorians and the Aryans, the Hebrews, all at one time obscure groups of wanderers or simple tillers of the soil who rose to fame and prominence by their sheer will to survive or push on, their destiny shaped by the reality of their existence and the shared experiences of the members of their particular tribe as they reacted to sometimes insurmountable odds. The early Romans were no different, as tribes of Indo European speakers moved south into the Italian peninsula in the later Bronze Age, various groups settling in different regions where they began to till the soil, smelt metal and create the beginnings of what would become ancient Italy.

Etruscan sarchophagus, reclining couple

Most of these groups and tribes were speakers of an Indo European language while others were not, such as the Etruscans who created what was the most glorious and advanced culture in ancient Italy, renown for their sophisticated art and highly decorated tombs of  which several have survived. The Etruscan artifacts we have- the frescoes and friezes, the pottery and the household items, the exquisitely carved sarcophagi created to honor their deceased family members reveal a people inclined to a life of pleasure, a civilization that enjoyed music and dance, eating and drinking or simply reclining with one's spouse or spending an afternoon entangled in the arms of a lover. Their metallurgy reached the highest levels of technology and creativity, as reflected in the amazingly excellent condition of the arms, armor and decorated war chariots which have survived the ravages of nature and human alike. We know little about their language or their origins and several theories have been put forth for these people. Some claim they were immigrants from Asia Minor who settled in the region of northern Italy which in time became known as Etruria, or land of the Etruscans. There certainly is the myth of one Aeneas, who fled Troy upon the sacking of that city by the Achaean Greeks. However, some linguists claim that the Trojans were themselves an Indo European people with ties to the Thracians of the Balkans, also an Indo European folk. There is a theory that the Etruscans were related to the Armenians, but again, this language like Hittite belongs to the Indo European family group. The ancient pre Aryan Pelasgians, supposed ancestors of the later Greeks and Balkan peoples such as the Illyrians, both of whom spoke Indo European, are another group mentioned as possibility, as well as other nations who may have been from the Levant, indicating a proto Semitic/Canaanite origin. But so far, only the proposing of theories continues to challenge the most probable fact- the Etruscans were an ancient aboriginal people, like the Sicani of Sicily, who inhabited the land long before the coming of the speakers of Aryan languages and created an already high established culture. The Roman writer Livy attempted to link the Etruscans with Alpine peoples, as ancient authors were well experienced with creating narratives that may have had little to do with reality but more with impressing the emperor or that sense of moral compass that was required to unify the empire. Nobody can be sure just who these mysterious people were or what their language was like, but the common consensus is that they were not speakers of an Aryan tongue. 

Etruscan frieze depicting dancing couple

Well preserved and finely wrought Etruscan armor, 6th century BC

The original tribe of those who would go on to create Rome were known as the Latini, from which we get the name of their language, Latin. They settled in the hills where Rome has been located for millennia. There were other tribes living in the peninsula as well. Just as the Greek city states would grow larger in population over time and cause them to compete for farming and herding land, so did these tribes in Italy begin to compete and feud with each other as well. The Greek city states in fact were forced to seek new land to feed their small cities, so they explored and eventually colonized the coasts of southern Italy and Sicily, pushing back the native inhabitants and settling along the coast to support Greek city state maritime trade, ignoring the then semi barbaric peoples of the interior. The Greek colonists traded with these peoples and maintained a healthy relationship with the highly civilized Etruscans, and we can see the influence of each culture upon the other in the surviving artifacts. Though the colonization process took some time, the Greeks were well established in southern Italy and Sicily by the 6th century BC. The new cities they developed in 'Magna Graecia' such as Naples; Neapolis is Greek for 'new city', as well as in those impressive urban centers in Sicily such as Syracuse and Akragas (Agrigento) all were busy trading with the city states of the Greek mainland and as a result made alliances with these cities. As the city states competed for the abundance of the southern Italian land, which was fertile and volcanic and produced the excellent wheat which fed Corinth, Sparta and Athens, they naturally went to war with one another. While the Greek city states were engaged in nearly constant warfare for control of the wheat fields and orchards of the south, the Italic peoples in the interior of the peninsula also engaged in war, as the Latium people began to expand. The rise of the Roman empire had begun. 

The Sabine Women, Jaques Louis Davide 1808

The tribe of Latium established a legend which would go on to be the very foundation of Rome's glorious rise, the story of Romulus and Remus, those orphan twins suckled by a she wolf. Their parents are said to have placed them in a basket and sent them to float down the river Tiber, this being an ancient narrative which gave us several tales, among them the story of Moses and the founder of the Akkadian empire, the great Sargon, both of whom were supposedly placed into floating baskets to be left for the gods to decide what their fate. The two brothers, like their ruler predecessors, were always quarreling with one another. The Latium needed to be unified, so hence the legend- Romulus killed his brother in a duel and assumed the throne, thus considered the founder of Rome.

As the population of Latium began to increase, they looked at the lands of their neighbors who were in competition with them, the Umbrians and the powerful Samnites. Early Rome was engaged in a state of constant warfare. They  conquered the tribe of the Sabines, the rape of their women a powerful and compelling tale which inspired famous paintings by such Renaissance and classical artists as Jaques Louis-Davide and Rubens, among others. Eventually, they defeated the warlike Samnites and went on to establish their city on the Tiber, built upon seven hills. After the early Romans established their presence and consolidated their power in central Italy the cultures they conquered or overpowered were absorbed into this new political entity, each of them contributing their share to what would become Roman art, folklore and lifestyle. From the colonized Greek cities the Romans took much indeed, and soon the Romans would challenge the Greek presence and conquer southern Italy and Sicily, fighting wars against such generals as the great Pyrrhus of Epirus and Hannibal of Carthage. In these struggles which at times saw the defeat of the Roman armies by these military geniuses, the Romans patiently swallowed their pride and rallied, learning by mistake and adapting new tactics and strategies. For moral support and spiritual strength they turned to their ancient legends, myths and tales which hearkened back to an earlier time of heroes and champions, just as every other ancient civilization. The stories of a long gone era always inspire us to go ahead and move on amid struggle and travesty, and Roman parents saw to it that their offspring would be the very manifestation of those ancient, unbeatable champions of old. Like the ancient Spartans, Rome would achieve this but on a grander scale, for while Sparta's reputation for war and bravery was as a city state, Rome was destined to conquer the world. 

Etruscan war chariot, 5th century BC  Metropolitan Museum, NY

Heralding back in time to those early years, there were many stories Roman bards could call upon to explain their past. In these ancient myths and legends we read not only about the founding of Rome but also mentions of other elements which contributed to Roman identity. The earliest Latin author, in fact considered the father of Roman literature was Quintus Ennius who lived in the 2nd century BC. The story of Aeneas the Trojan fleeing to Italy after the sacking of his city of Troy gave the Romans a sense of a great and dignified heritage in that they were descended from a race of heroes, as composed by the great poet Virgil in his work the Aeneid. This and other stories seem to suggest migration from Troy or more specifically, other lands, which certainly must have occurred early on in history. Homer's Odyssey was considered an important work, here the Greek hero's name was changed to Ulysses, while all his exploits with the cyclops, the Sirens and the sea monsters of the Straits of Scylla in Sicily were duly noted. As in nearly every culture and civilization, the myths which provided the moral backbone of Roman society with bravery and virtue were laden with stories of events and gender roles that defied the general view of their world. These tales from Roman mythology were formulated based on events that supposedly occurred in this earlier chaotic time, and the peoples and places described within inform us of that time for which we know so little about, a pre history if you will. 

One such story from the Roman epic cycle was the tale of Camilla, made popular by the author Virgil in his Aeneid. Scholars of literature still debate whether the tale was an ancient Italian story or was created by Virgil himself, drawing from earlier Greek stories of the Amazons. What we do know is that many ancient civilizations which were firmly patriarchal in their heyday were entertained by stories from the repertoires of bards told of fierce warrior women who lived in an earlier age. This was somewhat convenient since in Greece, Rome and India these tales were myths and stories to be told but were never meant for the women folk of that society to imitate. Yet, it was the duty of women to nurture the young, their task to instill in their children the values and virtues of bravery and striving to defend the nation and the society from enemies. A strong woman figure reinforced these values in the form of an armored warrior who would gladly face death and even prefer it, to a life of slavery. 

Camilla was said to be the daughter of one Metabus, a king of the Volsci, one of the tribes that lived in the peninsula. He was a victim of the previously mentioned tribal chaos that marked the life of early Italian tribes, as he was overthrown by his rivals and forced to flee, carrying his small daughter Camilla with him. A chase ensued over the hills and through the woods as the rebels wanted the king dead. When the rebels were close behind Metabus tied his daughter to his spear and threw it to the other side of a river gorge, invoking the goddess Diana to care for his daughter and teach her how to survive. Some stories claim that the rebels caught Metabus and killed him, and unsuccessfully searched for Camilla who was now safely across the gorge, having been found by a wild mare who took the babe as her own and nursed her. As a result, Camilla learned to tame and ride horses well and grew into a huntress who knew the woods and the forests, protecting the farms of those she was friends with, very much like the Greek story of Cyrene. Camilla soon rose to become the queen of the Volsci and sought revenge for her father's death. 

Camilla is the source of many epic tales in which she proved her talent with the sword, spear and bow against enemies and competitors. She was considered fleeting of foot, and could run atop wheat fields and never harm the chaff, or skip over water so briskly her feet never became wet. After a career of winning duels and battles against her foes, she would meet the hero Aeneas, who was a migrant seeking a new life in Italy. He himself settled in the land, making alliances and offering his services, fighting with various tribes and clans. Here he met the original inhabitants who are described as fierce fighters, and made an alliance with the Etruscans who had been at war with one King Turnus of the Patulli, an allied tribe of the Volsci. Perhaps seeing their land inundated by these migrant Trojans, Greeks and other peoples, or fearful of being forced out by these populous foreigners; much like the Native Americans in the face of European expansion in the New World...Camilla set out to assist the Patulli against the forces of the Etruscans and their ally, Aeneas. 

In a pitched battle Camilla and her attendant Opis, another fierce warrior woman, slew many Etruscans and Trojans. Unable to slay her in hand to hand combat, as evidenced by her victims who lay now in heaps on the battlefield, an Etruscan warrior named Arruns pulls his powerful bow and lets loose a swift arrow that strikes the Volscian queen in the breast. In some versions of the story Arruns kills her with a spear, but it is clear that she had to be dispatched by a weapon from a distance, for no man will dare approach her and live to tell of the encounter, so effective was her sword or battle ax. The death of Camilla was a theme for several Renaissance artists and her story was quite popular in the later Middle Ages. After she is mortally wounded Camilla lives long enough to tell her beloved attendant Opis who it was who killed her, and swears her to an oath to seek revenge. Camiila witnesses the death of Arruns by the hand of Opis, who cuts off his head and holds it aloft for all to see. The Etruscans, Aeneas and the Trojan allies flee from the field in horror as Camilla nods approvingly to Opis, smiles softly, then closes her eyes and expires. 

Such stories from the pre history of what we know of as ancient civilizations ie: the ancient history for the ancients themselves, reveal much for us to ponder about life before the rise of those civilizations we considered to be part of our own history. These myths and tales reveal to us clues about the early history itself, indicating lifestyle and gender roles that were quite different from the noted civilization itself. mentions of various nations and peoples seem to support the work and findings of historians who themselves date and classify artifacts, with the different styles of art causing us to think about the many migrations that occurred in the most ancient times. Rome inherited the stories and the culture of these early Italic peoples, using Greek methods to discern and define their culture. They did indeed put their own stamp on this new inherited culture and set out to conquer the world. For better or for worse, Rome subdued nations but also was inclusive as they allowed the vanquished to participate in what would collectively become a unified Roman victory. Rome's government became the complete opposite of what the tribes of her pre history experienced, perhaps that experience of the years of chaos informed the Romans of what not to do. For sure, there were many civil wars and rebellions in Rome's history, echoing that ancient chaotic past, yet the restoration of order became the norm for Roman rule. 

Whenever Rome was threatened, such as by Pyrrhus of Epirus or the Carthaginian general Hannibal, or when they engaged in one of the many wars they fought with the empire of Persia, we can rest assured that the bards who accompanied the legions recited such tales of old to inform the legionnaires of what they were fighting for, though most came from every province of the empire. Diverse they were, but united by a dream and vision inspired and influenced by the desire for humanity to establish order amid chaos. It was the tales of that pre historic, ancient era which produced heroes and champions who themselves were examples of order and rule in their time that directed the Romans to create lex, or law and the concept of 'civitas'. Rome ruthlessly conquered but Rome shared and gave, and was perhaps the most influential entity in all human history. 

Ismail Butera, 2021