This is the first of a series of articles discussing the depiction of the human and physical form in classical art via the lens of warfare through the ages. War is a terrible experience of which most will argue should not be glorified or honored, as we humans are indeed afraid of war and ashamed of our obsession with it. Yet mankind has displayed a fascination with the images of war and violent struggle for many millennia, continually being discovered in our own time in cave paintings and upon the walls of canyons and hillsides as petroglyphs, humans combating wild beasts or each other. Morally, we do speak out and stand against the horrors of war, and this is a good thing, to hope that we could one day finally put an end to it. But for all our efforts and attempts to denounce war, we remain fascinated with its depiction in art- perhaps because we know, though we prefer not to admit it, that war is endemic to our very existence, a feature of what it is to being human.
The Battle Of Milvian Bridge, Giulio Romano 1520 Vatican
'The one way for us to become great, perhaps inimitable, is by imitating the ancients'
...Johann Joachim Winckelman
A great proponent of the art movement known as Neoclassicism in the later 18th and early 19th centuries, the art historian and archeologist Johann Joachim Winckelman expressed the desire to maintain an already existing tradition in art that he felt possibly was on the wane in his time- the depiction of ancient heroic themes. Portraiture, nature scenes and still life painting were becoming popular just as in the realm of European music, the Romantic Era was about to blossom with personal expression representing a new age of revolution and enlightenment, the foreshadowing of the modern era of which we are a part. The art of rule and social philosophy, like art itself, was undergoing change as the old was being scrutinized and abandoned in favor of new methods of interpreting society. The concept of the individual, the common human being was coming into his or her own, a concept that had it roots in the philosophy of the ancient Greeks, was now being realized in its entirety. During the Renaissance the uniqueness of the individual was stressed, the beauty of human attributes given their due as artists challenged conventional ways to portray humans, though the ancient theme of heroism and bravery in battle was still very much alive. Winckelman seemed to want to preserve this ancient style which was with humanity through the ages, often going hand in hand with the stories and tales recounted about heroes and champions and the deeds of warriors upon the field of battle. Perhaps little compares to the portrayal of human muscular strength and determination as portrayed in art. Anyone, whether cultured and educated or completely uninformed about art, can relate to the depiction of people struggling, determined either to win a battle or bring about social change, as evident in the 20th century murals of social minded artists such as Diego Rivera. The power of the people, the force of the individual together with others, is compelling indeed. For all the concerns Winckelman may have believed that powerful expressions of the human will might be lost unless we endeavor to maintain it, we are still creating and glorifying art with the same message that our ancestors portrayed for millennia. Struggle and endeavor of any kind requires strength and will to attain the desired results, and art immortalizes the emotions and the reactions, the muscle and sinew the expression of which is endemic to that striving. Perhaps we can credit Winckelman for his efforts, having dedicated his life to preserving the artistic values of the ancient world for all time.
The Battle Of Zama, Cornelius Cort 1567-68 Art Institute Of Chicago
In the ancient world artists created sculptures, friezes and paintings depicting handsome and beautiful gods, kings and queens, heroes and mortals who were the subjects of the many epics, mythological stories and tales recounted and glorified by bards and storytellers, poets and authors who recorded their stories in writing or recited via oral literature. These characters became household names and their deeds were immortalized and represented on vases, pottery or wall paintings and were in carved stone. Each personality of these stories represented an aspect of life which we all could relate to, fantasize or wish to become. Thus Gilgamesh, Achilles and the goddess Durga were larger than life which may account for the sometimes huge size and sheer majesty of the artwork, often adorning the walls and halls of palaces and temples. Wherever people might be or whatever they were doing, they were reminded of the deeds or the events immortalized on a grand scale. One theme of such art that was popular is the depiction of great battles, immortalizing a memorable struggle or a great victory over a mighty foe. Muscular figures and twisted torsos in various poses gave life and movement to an otherwise still work of art in an age that did not know moving pictures. The bards recounted the tales while the artists envisioned the happenings and the audience knew well the unfolding of the events of a particular story and lessons meant to be learned and embraced from that retelling. The armies of Sumerian kings such as Sargon of Akkad was given due honor in decorated palaces via the creation of colorful painted frescoes depicting armed warriors on foot or making ready for battle in their war chariots. The beloved Sumerian goddess of war and fertility Inaana, who later became known as Ishtar, is an all conquering entity who has been honorably represented in art and poetry, the subject of the world's oldest published poetry by Enheduanna, high priestess of the temple and daughter of the great Sargon himself. Her poetry is considered as the first example of 'published' poetry in that clay tablets bearing her verses written in cuneiform are the oldest even found in an archeological dig. Unless other examples are eventually uncovered in the future, so far we know that the educated and cultured Enheduanna didn't seem to care to write about love or longing between human beings but rather expressed loving adoration for a warrior goddess who smote her enemies mercilessly, her verses as viscerally detailed and descriptive of combat as any great epic from the ancient world. Put quite simply, the beauty of the human body was glorified in the ancient world. Just as the hero Gilgamesh was larger than life, ancient Assyrian and Babylonian statuary was massive and defined a warlike and militaristic society. The well designed, hanging gardens of Babylon and massive ziggurats defined heaven on Earth, while the deeds of gods, kings and conquerors defined the price that was necessary to pay for living in such a heavenly kingdom- comfort and civilization came with a cost, and that cost was to be paid with the blood of those who were willing to defend civilization. Thus battle was an honored event. The exploits and battle scenes of victorious kings such as Nebuchadrezzar and Ashurbanipal were often accompanied with the depiction of prisoners tied and cowering as they gaze in horror upon the heads of their comrades hanging in trees.
The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, artwork approximately 640 BC British Museum
In ancient Egyptian statuary, gods as well as great kings and Pharaohs were immortalized with gigantic likenesses of themselves in tombs and in temples as well as in wall carvings. In Egyptian painting we see the mighty Pharaohs time and again crushing their enemies in battle, such as the great Ramses II defeating the Nubians or riding his war chariot over the bodies of the slain Hittites as he secures his victory at the battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC, one the great battles of the ancient world. He is depicted as victorious at Kadesh in paintings, even though he almost lost this battle. A grandson of his namesake (Ramses III) decorated his temple at Medinet Habu with depictions of his victory over the invading Sea Peoples. We become certain of the Egyptian victory which took place in the delta of the Nile, as Egyptian soldiers slay the armored foe in their boats while many more drown, which is a historically accurate depiction of the event- the Egyptian forces surprised the invading fleet as they emerged from the weeds and the rushes that concealed them. We also get an idea of the arms, armor and costumes of the day, as well as a taste of the ferocity of the battle itself as well as its aftermath which is what informs us of such events. The battle that saved Egypt from annihilation, along with the accompanying land battle victory at Djahy (1177 BC?) was remembered and Ramses III, grandson of the great Ramses II, saw to it that he would live forever as well. Pharaohs were bigger than life and all powerful, receiving the obeisance of their defeated foes who, if they were fortunate, were taken as prisoners unlike so many less fortunate of their comrades who faced a certain, horrible death. In a sense, great Pharaohs and victorious generals achieved the level of gods and otherworldly beings through their deeds and the artwork they commissioned. Some of this art might be self indulging ego for sure, but some of it may be actually history.
Ramses III defeats the Sea Peoples at the battle of the Delta, 1175 BC
Indian artists created sculpture and carvings depicting great battles from their many stories as written in their epic books such as the Mahabharata or the Ramayana. Great heroes and champions do battle with demons or enemy armies that are comprised of a host of beings, demons, apsaras (muses) dwarfs and giants. Great muscular warriors wield a host of weapons including a massive mace held with two hands that is capable of smashing the head of an enemy or his horse. In a wall frieze at the temple of Mahalbalipurnam in Tamil Nadu, southern India, the goddess Durga leads her army to victory over the forces of the evil buffalo demon Mahishasura. In the lower foreground one of her female warriors crouches and slays a demon in a pose reminiscent of Greek or Roman sculpture. There are striking similarities to the positioning of warriors in Indian sculpture to Greco-Roman art, glorifying the realm of the all conquering hero, limbs and muscle straining to achieve the vanquishing of an enemy in the midst of battle. A number of these Indian heroes and goddesses depicted in art are female. In Greek and Roman art the Amazon warriors are depicted as brave and glorious, with great beauty and strength but are considered as foreigners and outsiders in Greco Roman thought and gender roles. In India however, though a patriarchal society for millennia, the power of the feminine is evident as native Indian warrior women seem as natural to the military life as any soldier not only in art but in social life, at least in the genre of warfare and military prowess. Indian spirituality refers to Shakti, the creative power of the feminine which is considered the original power in the universe. Both male and female warriors stand side by side in these representations of Indian art, whether depicting an actual battle or a cosmic war between the forces of the gods in the universe. The goddess Kali, the primordial dark force of the universe, is terrible on the field of battle, extracting terrible revenge against evil entities who litter the plain in heaps with their decapitated bodies.
Durga defeats the forces of the evil buffalo god
From the temple at Mahalbalipurnam, Tamil Nadu 725 AD
Female warriors, Uttar Pradesh Gupta era 5th century AD
In ancient Greek and Roman civilization the human being was viewed as the epicenter of the cosmos, and their gods were depicted as glorious, muscular humans. In recreations of battle scenes artists created masterpieces through their talented hands, as warriors and champions were depicted in a sweeping battle scene in which all the aspects of war came alive, albeit in a glorified format. It was the desire of ancient artists to make war seem beautiful, mostly however sans the gore and the bloody negative aspects of ancient warfare as we witness in Assyrian or Egyptian art. Warriors slay or are slain but often without the bloody reality of the experience of actual combat. Perhaps this was because warfare was common in ancient times and those who went to war were considered as gods themselves, fighting to protect their family and their kingdom. War was considered an honorable profession whereby an individual can attain glory through a thousand opportunities that might come about as a battle unfolds, as the warrior might realize his destiny. The famous Amazonomachy or the Giganomachy (wars of the titans and giants) that adorned the Parthenon or various palaces reveal a battle where warriors slay or are slain- swords strike and kill, spears impale and the dead and the dying litter the ground, but the depiction is beautiful enough so as not to offend sensibilities or cause the onlooker to revolt in horror. Indeed, even death is glorified in these depictions of art, and there is always plenty of it. However, death is rendered beautiful as once living and active human figures are silenced forever, their taught bodies lying prone or lie piled in heaps in eternal embrace upon the battlefield., their broken weapons about them. Greco-Roman art is action packed for sure, but is rendered beautiful through the imitation of the beauty of the human figure. So popular was the battle motif that Roman nobles contracted artists to create sarchophagai, carved stone coffins if you will, for the purpose of burial decorated with some mythological battle scene between Greek heroes and Amazons, or with fantastic creatures such as the gorgons or the half human/half beast centaurs, engaged in combat with some great hero. The chaos of battle was a popular theme for the final resting place of many a noble and emperor. The Greco-Roman aesthetic set the standard for art for millennia to follow. Battle, in reality a terrible and gory experience rendered beautiful and glorious by the hands of ancient artists, was something noble to honor and hold in high esteem and meant to inspire the young and future generations to manifest bravery and prowess in war and to be an expression of that society condoning such virtues, even if the art that represents this longing is somewhat over stylistic and idealized.
Seal from a grave in Mycenae Greece, two warriors in combat 16th century BC
Gigantomachy, war of gods & giants 525 BC Delphi Greece
Greek vase painting, hoplites in combat 600 BC Louvre Museum, Paris
Such idealized and glorified art which Winckelman described as "noble simplicity and calm grandeur" might have been forgotten but in reality, it always makes a comeback and an appearance in one form or another. Johann Joachim Winckelman simply insisted on its preservation and in so doing cemented the genre of idealized, heroic art in the minds of art lovers for centuries to come. The multitude of artists and the public answered the call with enthusiasm, all the way down the ages to the era of modern art in such anti war masterpieces as Goya's 'The Third of May' or Pablo Picasso's 'Guernica', which use the passion of emotional human figures to express the reality of terrible circumstances. Lest we forget, poster art of the 60's and 70's saw rock musicians depicted as near ancient heroic figures armed with guitars or drumsticks, assisting in creating musical legends. Art reflects life and the ideas of the living. All art, be it figurative art, sculpture, music, literature and dance reflect the souls of individuals and the effects of either joy or trauma upon them. Facing joy and trauma depicted as a champion assists in creating and maintaining the image of such a legend, and insuring immortality forever. Mythological figures and heroes are meant to be larger than life, and they inspire us to imitate them, transforming an otherwise uneventful life to one of meaning. This is the power of mythology and the recounting of legends, through the eye of the artist, which in the past was often glorified by the words of bards and the pens of classical authors.
Battle Of San Romano Paolo Uccello Approx. 1438 Uffizi Gallery Florence Italy
Roman sarchophagus, 2nd century AD Royal Ontario Art Museum
The Sabine Women Jaques Louis David, 1799 Louvre Paris
Ancient and Classical art has stimulated, inspired and influenced my creations of storybook videos, which are expressions of ancient mythologies. Working with photographers, models, actors and actresses, I seek to recreate scenes which augment the recitation which recounts the tale in ancient bardic style. Of course, there is traditional music and sound effects as an added embellishment.
Links to my audio and video recordings as well as writings
can be found on my website: www.echoesofantiquity.net
Images from the Echoes Of Antiquity production The Fall Of Troy
Battle between Greeks, Amazons & Aethiopians
Battle scene from Portals Of Eternity
Copyright 2023, Ismail Butera
For further reading into this fascinating subject,
check out this article from the Los Angeles Times by Reed Johnson:
'War In All Its Awful Beauty'
https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-apr-20-ca-johnson20-story.html
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Gigantomachy, war of gods & giants 525 BC Delphi Greece 
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